In “Logic Reasoning,” Dowden explains “When faced with a claim that someone wants you to accept, or when you are given a recommendation for what you should do, your first response ought to be to ask yourself two questions: 1) What do they mean? And 2) Why do they think that?” People regularly make mistakes in communicating. This chapter is aimed at our development of precision. The skill of precise communication can be thought of as a mean between lacking precision and being excessively precise.

3.1 Lack of Precision

Ambiguous

As Dowden points out, news headlines are an excellent place to look for ambiguous language given “headlines are a notorious place where the rules of grammar get bent.” Ambiguity means that there is more than one meaning. Here are a couple of examples from Dowden’s text:

More Sanctions Coming, Japan Warned

This headline could be read as Japan is doing the warning OR Japan is being warned.

Here’s another example:

Air Force Considers Dropping Some New Bombs

Is there a weapons program being discontinued or are planes going to drop new bombs on an enemy?

Both examples are ambiguous, although in two different ways. In the first—the Japan example—the ambiguity originates in the grammar, whereas the second– Air Force example—there is a single term that is ambiguous. We will come back to this distinction in our chapter on fallacies, Chapter 4.

Here are a couple of more examples of ambiguous statements generated by Gemini (Ai):

The chicken is ready to eat.

This could mean the chicken has been cooked and is ready for us to eat OR the chicken is hungry and ready to eat.

The artist painted a picture of a person with a flower.

This could mean the person in the picture is holding a flower or the artist used a flower as a tool to paint with.

To avoid ambiguities, we want to be more precise. Here are a few examples from above that are re-written to be precise.

The chicken is hungry and needs to be fed.

The artist painted a picture of a person with a flower in her hair.

Vagueness

Dowden continues the theme of ambiguity by noting the ambiguous term “poor” in the example, “Jane Austen is a poor person.” The term poor is ambiguous because it could mean financial need or someone unfit. It would be easy enough to clarify this so that it is clear which version of poor one intends. However, even if we clear up the ambiguity the term “poor” is unclear because it is vague.

Vagueness is an issue with imprecision either because there are borderline cases or because there are degrees. Consider the following vague, or fuzzy, terms, generated by Gemini (AI):

around                       large                           quite                           things
big                               little                             several                       up to
couple                        many                          some                          various
few                              much                          sort of                         very
kind of                        numerous                  stuff                            wild

To see a difference between vague and precise communication, think about the differences between advertising and scientific communication. Advertising is essentially vague so marketers can produce more customers. “Everything in the store is up to 70% off.” We suspect most things in the store and especially the popular items will be 10% off and the month-old Halloween candy is the only thing that hits the 70% mark. Conversely, a scientific measurement that will be used as data in a hypothesis will be exact. The Mesonet reading for rainfall in Stillwater during February 2024 is .89 inches.

3.2 Using Strong Definitions

One might think that a definition is a definition. Whatever it is we need to define we can do a quick Google search and produce a definition. Yet, if you are writing a scholarly topic on a paper for a class, it is best to dig a bit further. It is true that Google will give you a definition, but academic and scientific fields use more precise definitions compared to those found online.

If you wanted to know if you qualified as being “blind” for income tax purposes, you will want to read the definition given by the tax commission instead of Google. If you are writing an argumentative paper on the morality of certain types of euthanasia, you will want to read definitions of death that turn up in a medical or medical-ethics context instead of Google.

Sometimes we create slanted definitions to persuade someone of a particular view or to evoke a particular emotion. Other times we create novel definitions of things to be funny.

Occasionally, you might need to use a definition that is not going to turn up with a Google search.

Precising Definitions

Dowden provides a relevant process of coming to a precise definition of a phrase that Google would likely not have a definition of.

Suppose I hire you to visit the corner of Watt Avenue and Marconi Boulevard and to count the number of nice cars that pass by during lunchtime each day for a week. You, the logical reasoner, will think to ask me to define my key terms “nice car” and “lunchtime” if I hadn’t done this already. Suppose I define “nice car” as a car that currently retails for over $30,000; and define “lunchtime” to mean from noon to 1:30 P.M. OK, now things are clearer.

At the time cars were invented, horses were a better-known source of power, so it was common to say the more powerful of two cars had more “horsepower.” The term was also used to represent the power of water wheels, motors, and even people. Clarity was added to all this when the experts finally agreed on a more precise definition: One horsepower is the power needed to raise a weight of 550 pounds by one foot in one second.

Precising definitions are definitions that make the correct meaning more precise. We have just seen three examples of precising definitions: for “nice car,” “lunchtime,” and “horsepower.”

Dowden goes on to explain how precising definitions play a role in defining key terms when a new law is written. In the courtroom definitions often go through another level of making key terms more precise. Consider the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits “unreasonable searches and seizures.” The definition of this phrase developed over time with a blend of common sense, legislation, and judicial decisions. Dowden gives an example:

In the 1991 case of California v. Hodar D, the Court considered the case of a suspect who threw away a packet of drugs while running from the police. The drugs were then confiscated by the police. Have those drugs been seized unreasonably? “Yes,” said the defense lawyer. “No,” said the prosecutor. To resolve the dispute, the Court had to more precisely define “unreasonable seizure.” It decided that if the suspect keeps running after dropping his materials, then no unreasonable seizure of those materials has occurred and the materials will later be admissible as evidence.

In courtroom decisions, the judge’s precising definitions are typically the result of what they can learn about the intentions of the legislators who wrote the law, and by what the judge understands to be in the public interest. Other fields use precising definitions in different ways. For instance, anthropology redefines what it means to be human when new species are found that blur the line between human and non-human. Political institutions or leaders define terms in their own way as an exertion of power. Can you think of other fields that may have the task of defining key terms by making the definition more precise?

There are few other types of definitions you should consider.

Stipulative Definitions

A stipulative definition is a new word or phrase and its definition. As we make technological progress or come up with new ideas we set the term and definition. Stipulative definitions can also be used when talking about a specific understanding of a word or rule. Here are a few examples generated by Gemini (AI):

In a computer programming class: “For this course, when we say ‘bug,’ we mean an error in the code that causes the program to malfunction.”

In a debate: “Let’s stipulate that ‘happiness’ means a state of overall well-being and contentment.” 

In a game of cards: “In this variation of poker, we will stipulate that ‘wild cards’ are any cards with a face value of 7.”

In a debate: “For this debate let’s stipulate that ‘sentience’ in an AI means the demonstrated ability to experience subjective feelings and self-awareness.”

Persuasive Definitions

Persuasive definitions attempt to influence how you think about something by using emotional charged language, focusing on isolated criteria, or by subtly changing the meaning of the term. These are typically used to promote one’s own view while attacking opposing views. Ultimately, the person using a persuasive definition is trying to persuade you to agree with their perspective. Here are a few examples generated by Gemini (AI):

Patriotism is blind loyalty to one’s country, no matter what its government does.

This definition equates patriotism with unquestioning obedience, suggesting that any criticism of the government is unpatriotic.

A liberal is someone who believes in excessive government intervention in all aspects of life, stifling individual freedom and economic growth.

This definition uses loaded terms like “excessive” and “stifling” to portray liberal policies negatively. It ignores the nuances of liberal ideology and focuses on a negative caricature.

A true conservative is someone who upholds traditional values and resists all forms of social change, even when those changes are necessary for progress.

This definition paints conservatives as resistant to any change, even beneficial ones, using the loaded term “resists” and implying that all change leads to “progress”. It ignores the conservative emphasis on measured and thoughtful change.

Lexical Definitions

When you look up a word in a dictionary, you are looking for the term’s lexical definition. These types of definitions tell us how words are commonly used and understood in everyday language. They aim to capture the established, conventional meaning of a word. Lexical definitions cover words that have multiple meanings, often separated by semi-colons or other punctuation. Lexical definitions can change over time. Sometimes, if the word becomes commonly used, a stipulative term can become a lexical one if the word is added to common dictionaries. Here are a few examples generated by Gemini (AI):

run (verb): To move swiftly on foot so that both or all feet leave the ground during each stride; to operate or manage something (e.g., “run a business”); to flow (e.g., “the river runs to the sea”).

table (noun): A piece of furniture with a flat top and one or more legs, providing a level surface for various purposes; a systematic arrangement of data usually in rows and columns.

cold (adjective): Having a low temperature; lacking in affection or warmth of feeling, unfriendly; having a relative bluish quality.

Theoretical Definitions

Theoretical definitions try to explain the underlying nature of a concept within a specific theoretical framework. Essentially, theoretical definitions try to provide a deeper understanding within a specific field of study. Think about the definitions to terms you have found in textbooks during your studies. Here are a few examples generated by Gemini (AI):

gene (in biology): A segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait or characteristic, capable of being inherited by offspring.

This definition goes beyond simply saying a gene is “something that passes traits down” and connects it to DNA and heredity.

force (in physics): An interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass to accelerate, change its velocity (which includes starting from rest), i.e., to move from a state of rest, or to deform.

This is much more precise than simply saying a force is “a push or a pull.”

market (in economics): A system in which buyers and sellers interact to exchange goods or services.

This definition encompasses more than just a physical marketplace and includes online transactions and other forms of exchange.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we have explored topics in effective communication. We have seen that words can be ambiguous or vague and we have seen that different types of definitions are needed for navigating the nuances of language and avoiding misunderstandings.

Effective communication demands our ability to use and interpret these different types of definitions appropriately. By paying attention to how words are being used, we can ensure that our messages are clear and impactful. Whether you are writing a research paper, participating in a debate, or simply trying to articulate something to a friend, a grasp of definitions will enhance your communication skills.

Dowden, Bradley H. Logical reasoning. Accessed January 14, 2025. https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/logical-reasoning-archives/Logical-Reasoning-2020-05-15.pdf.