University Academic Writing for International Students: A Usage-based Approach [BETA]

Carol Lynn Moder, Alys Avalos-Rivera, Ho'omana Nathan Horton, Miriam Kinfe, Paul Sims, Seth French, and Yelin Zhao

University Academic Writing for International Students: A Usage-based Approach [BETA] by Carol Lynn Moder, Alys Avalos-Rivera, Ho'omana Nathan Horton, Miriam Kinfe, Paul Sims, Seth French, and Yelin Zhao is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Contents

- Part I. Writing Through Narrative

- 1. Unique Characteristics of the Narrative Essay

- 2. The Impact of the Thesis

- 3. Outcomes and Resources

- 4. Sample Narrative Essays

- Part II. Writing for Information Purposes

- 5. Writing from readings: Definitions and Examples

- 6. Writing from Data

- 7. Variation and Complexity

- 8. Organizing an Essay

- Part III. Writing to Persuade

- 9. Engaging in Discussions about Controversial Issues

- 10. The Thesis Statement in a Persuasive Text

- 11. Organizing Your Arguments

- 12. Counter Arguments

- 13. Writing a Persuasive Essay

- 14. Evaluating Your Work

- Part IV. Email Guidelines

- 15. Cultural Context

- 16. What to Consider When Writing an Email to a Professor?

- 17. Examples and Exercises

- Part V. Using Outside Material and Avoiding Plagiarism

- 18. Using Outside Material

- 19. Avoiding Plagiarism

- Part VI. Evaluating Your Sources

- 20. Evaluating an Internet Source

- 21. Newspapers as a Source: Types, Sections, and Objectivity

- 22. The Case of Wikipedia

- 23. Sources in a ProQuest Database

- 24. Answer Key

- Part VII. Writing Summaries (Descriptive and Evaluative)

- 25. Introduction

- 26. Reading and Understanding Texts

- 27. The purpose of summaries

- 28. Types of Summary

- 29. The Moves of Writing Summaries

- 30. Avoiding Plagiarism when Writing Summaries

- 31. Exercises and Resources

- Part VIII. Transitional Devices

- 32. However as a Transitional Device

- 33. Transitions: Answerkey

- 34. Although As a Transitional Device

- 35. Transitions: AnswerKey

- Part IX. Presenting with Examples

- 36. Presenting Examples with 'such as' and 'for example'

- 37. 'such as'

- 38. 'For example': Introducing a Sentence

- 39. 'For example': Inside a Sentence

- 40. Summary Exercise: 'For example' or 'such as'?

I

Writing Through Narrative

Why the Narrative Essay?

If you’re like many college students, you have never written a narrative essay ( and perhaps have never even heard of it), and that’s okay. This chapter is designed to help you understand why it’s included as one of your writing assignments, what separates it from other styles of writing, how to most effectively structure it, and what outcomes you should hope to achieve once you’ve written it.

The narrative essay provides a unique opportunity for you to tell a personal story within the context of academic writing. Although empirical research and data are certainly vital in academia, personal experiences can provide intriguing perspectives in helping us better understand the world in which we live, and should therefore be valued as a useful form of academic writing as well.  An added benefit to the writer is it narrative essays tend to be more enjoyable to write than other types of essays because of the emphasis on personal storytelling semicolon narrative writing encourages you to express yourself by sharing personal experiences in a way most other forms of academic writing do not. Because you’re telling a story, you should definitely consider how you incorporate the various components that make up a story. For instance beginning of a story is where you are introduced to the story’s setting and Men characters semicolon there for your introduction should include this information. The middle of the story is where major developments, rising action, Climax, and falling action take place, which corresponds directly to your body paragraph. Lastly, the end of the story contains the resolution, which in your narrative essay will be your thesis and any other last insights you want to leave with your audience.

It is important to keep in mind, though, that you are not simply telling the story to entertain or amuse use; the purpose of a narrative essay is to communicate with specific message to your audience did the use of personal stories and examples. Thus, you must intentionally choose personal experiences from your past that enable you to communicate and meaningful message to your audience. Given a writing prompt, your audience will often be specified to help you better understand for him you are writing and why. However, in cases where your audience is not specified, you should consider your audience to be someone who is interested in how your personal experiences provide insight into the particular topic you’re writing a bath.

Considering your audience is crucial because your audience determines the particular style with which you communicate your message. If you are skeptical regarding this truth or simply filled ill-equipped to properly  address audience, consider the following examples. Do you speak to your grandparents differently than the way you speak to your best friend question mark does an email you sent to a classmate sound different than the one you sent your professor? If the answers to these questions seem like an obvious yes (and they should), can you understand how audience shapes the way we communicate with one another and to therefore keep this in mind as you write your essays.

1

Unique Characteristics of the Narrative Essay

Unique Characteristics of the Narrative Essay

Seth French

A. Telling a Story vs. Exploring a Topic

Most essays you have written up to this point in your acting career have likely introduced you to a certain topic and then asks you to explore that topic with three or more main points examples of / argument. The narrative essay, and contrast, requires you to tell a story in order to communicate the specific message related to your writing topic. Well there is certainly nothing wrong with other types of essays, it is vital that you approach this essay differently than how you approached others in order to successfully achieved a narrative style that is required.

Once you receive your writing prompt, begin brainstorming by thinking about what experiences from your past relate to the particular topic you were writing about. As you recall these experiences, try to narrow down the experiences you include in your essay to the best one or two that you think would be most appropriate to write about. Since you’re writing a narrative essay, not a narrative chapter workbook, the more stories you include, the list. So you’ll be able to include because you’ll see. So, it’s best to focus on one or two personal stories that correspond well with the writing prompt so you can go to the next detail as possible.

Once you have selected the best personal examples you will write about remember that you are telling the story, so your essay should include Elements which are typically present and stories, so just the setting, characters, but looks like a complex, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. All the level of detail you include regarding each of these elements will vary depending on your particular essay, be sure you don’t forget to discuss aspects that will help you read a better visualize the story you’re telling them.

B. Use of Personal Pronouns

Language components of the narrative essay that separated from other forms of writing or the common use of personal pronouns I me, my, we, hours, mine, sensory language taste, hear, smell, feel, see, dialogue and historical present / Past tenses. Other forms of academic writing favor passive voice in which the agent is hidden and personal pronouns are limited, if not altogether absent. However, in the narrative essay you are sharing a personal experience with your audience, so it will sound most appropriate for you to use personal pronouns throughout your essay rather than use passive voice. In other words, if you were going to tell me about an event you attended with your friends, it would be more appropriate for you to say something such as, “We all had a really great time,” rather than, “A great time was had by everyone.”

C. Use of Sensory Language

Sensory language is often encouraged and narrative writing because it helps your audience bring themselves into your story as you share with them details that only you can tell them. You read or hear some of your favorite stories, is it easy for you to visualize what the author is describing? If so it is probably because the authors Guild using sensory language to tell the story. While it is probably not necessary to include each of the five senses and describe it to you later event, you should consider with sensory details would be most useful for you to include in order to help your audience better visualize the settings you described. For instance, if you’re here to setting where concert, you would probably discuss the sights and sounds experienced at that time as usual sensory details for your audience semicolon on the other hand, if your narrative stating were restaurant, perhaps make the most sense to discuss the smells and taste you.. This, when you construct your narrative essay, consider which sensory details would be useful for you to include in order to  more effectively engage your audience.

D. Use of Dialogue

The effective use of dialogue is another way of engaging your audience. Since your narrative essay contain the characters who are acting with one another you should feel encouraged to share mine with a dialogue with in your narrative because it enables you to transition I’m simply telling your audience about what’s happening to Ashley immersing them in what’s happening.

Think for a moment about the conversation you have had with your friends on a regular basis. When you’re telling them about the interaction you have with someone else or an event you witnessed, you probably include the dialogue from the other situation without even realizing it. The reason we do this often seem delays because we understand the stories with dialogue are generally more interesting than those without dialogue. For example, when I was at Walmart the other day I saw two men getting into an argument. hey, I saw you trying to steal this. You better pay for them. Then the other guy said, it’s none of your business. That made the guy in the blue hat mad, so he said you better pay for this or else… They almost got into a fight. I was nervous to watch. Now, compare that to the following examples colon when I was at Walmart the other day, I saw a guy with a blue hat arguing with another guy because the other guy was doing something. I was nervous to watch country, the first question mark the first one, right? It’s funny how small things I can clean dialog can create to two significant difference in terms of engaging your audience.

E. Use of Historical Present and Past Tenses

Finally, the frequent use of historical present and past tense verbs also sets the narrative essay apart from other essays you may be used to writing. And many other academic writing contests, present tense for a general or ongoing events, truth, or realities. Present tense is it useful default dance to write in when you’re writing contest is not particularly interested in the ass with the time. And, in contrast, certainly emphasizes the aspect of time because you were telling the story which occurred in the past semicolon consequently, using historical present or past tense to work best in this context.

The historical present tense is useful when you are discussing an event that occurred in the past but would like to convey a sense of immediacy with it, as a following example illustratea: “So, I am at my house, and guess who calls me … my boss! I was worried at first, but then she tells me that she wants to give me a promotion! Isn’t that great?” This example of speakers telling her friend about the unexpected call she received from her boss while she was at home.  Past tense verbs, the speaker uses historical present tense to describe this event, it makes her friend feel as though she is experiencing the event at that moment rather than simply hearing about it.

Nevertheless, you should not feel as though you’re restricted to using only these two your essay. Pieces would likely be written using present tense verbs because your thesis with me to get some truth or realization you have learned through the experiences you shared a narrative. For example, if I were writing a narrative essay about a cultural traditions of United States, my right at this is like this: “Celebrating Thanksgiving with my family it reminds me that even the life can be hard and relationships can be complicated, I have so much to be thankful for.”  As a general rule, is historical present or past tense verbs to discuss events in your narrative which occurred in the past, the present tense verbs Elsewhere. For information regarding group Tootsie Quincy, refers to the appropriate length near the end of this chapter under the useful links heading.

F. Chronological Organization

Since you’re telling the story, it often makes the most sense to organize your essay chronologically in the order of the demons have it. And other essays, you will likely organize your point / example / arguments in the order . then I have to say, however, is easy for your audience to follow if you structure the events chronologically. If your narrative contains two storage rather than one, either of the following organizational strategies can be effective colon one oldest to most recent, to most recent to oldest. Whichever organizational strategy you select, make sure the last right you sure strong because it won’t be the last opportunity you have to leave your audience with a positive impression of your essay.

Because the organization of the narrative is chronological, the transitional Expressions you use within and between paragraphs will likely be chronological in nature as well. Consider using some of the following expressions and other similar Expressions to transition from one event to the next as you can stretch a narrative essay: Then, next, after that, once that was over, when I / me and finished, eventually, and finally. Learning to use transitional expressions effectively will greatly enhance the quality of your writing.

2

The Impact of the Thesis

The Impact of the Thesis

Seth French

A. Thoughts to Consider

As with any essay you write, your thesis is one of the most important components of your essay because it is healed her message she won’t take me to get to your audience. As such, it is vital to your thesis is clear and there’d effectively addresses the writing prompt inside. The narrative essay, UT sis would likely be realization you’ve come too or perhaps A Life Lesson you have learned from the story you’re writing about 2. We will discuss in a moment where your essay you should increase your thesis, but for now let’s consider other important pieces related points to keep in mind as you can post your essay

Keep in mind that while you are telling a story with a narrative essay the goal of your story is to support your thesis. Regardless of how interesting or well-written your story maybe, if it fails to support your thesis then you will need to make significant revisions to before submitting your final. Some students 50 Cent should determine how you can start your essay, not vice versa. This, determining your thesis should be one of your first objectives to complete in the composition process. Once you have your thesis, you may still need you to find it rather drafting process, but the general idea 50s this will likely remain the same.

As you can post the various parts of your essay throughout the drafting process, you should repeatedly ask yourself, how does this support my thesis? If you respond to this question honestly as you drop you will be able to identify the strengths of your essay as the weaknesses and address him accordingly. Feeling to support your thesis is generally the result of your details being insufficient irrelevant and / or incoherent. Therefore if you are concerned that you have not adequately support of your thesis in a particular portion of your essay, ensure that your details or sufficient, relevant to your thesis, and coherently organized.

You may include your thesis in the introduction for the conclusion of your essay. To help you choose which would be best to clean it for your particular I say, keep the following considerations in mind.

Thesis in Introduction

Including your thesis in the introduction is common across virtually all academic writing contacts because it helps to establish a clear Focus early in the essay and get your idea to do no idea for your essay is about before reading it and its entirety. I’ll find the pieces at either the first sentence or two lessons in the attraction, although including is a license of your introduction is more common and often prefer. majority of what you communicate your audience will be in the body of your essay, but it should contain the following aspects semicolon / attention-getter, optional development sentences, and a thesis.

Depressant is often called an attention-getter or hook because you want to hear audience’s attention (or hook them) from the very beginning. Hugs and come in the form of thoughtful questions from drinking quotes, or simply well-crafted sent this, if you include your thesis is your very first sentence come at make sure it has something to engage your audience because you don’t want your ideas to lose interest in what you have to say. Then only the other component you would need to clean an infection or developments if you feel a bit more information before you begin telling them your story. On the other hand, if your thesis is The Last of Us in your introduction, your stress you will be hook, options element, sentences, the Disco. When using the structure, just try to make sure that your thesis transitions logically if your first body.

your body paragraphs are where you will tell your audience the story the rest of the majority of your narrative essay. As previously mentioned, be very intentional as you can post this story because you are not simply telling us Tori Amos Lee so you’re telling strikes birthday sis. After you fit in your body paragraphs all that is left is your conclusions, which it restate your thesis using slightly different wording and offer any less than sites you like leave your eyes that you have not communicated elsewhere in your essay. Below is a list of pros and cons for this essay structure that you should consider as you determine which structure works for you.

Pros:

-An introduction with thesis makes it clear to your audience for your essays about without reading your essay in its entirety.

-With your thesis in the introduction, you can reference it as you drop your S8 ensure that each body paragraph supports your thesis coherently

-Because of structure is coming and many other academic writing contests you may have written this is a similar structure in the past and never find it easier to construct than the alternative.

Cons:

– it can be difficult to engage your audience throughout the essay if you tell them the overall message you want to hear at the beginning rather than at the end.

– It does not follow the structure of a story throughout colon setting, characters, problems with conflict, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Instead but the entry to the conclusion contain elements of your resolution, and the other elements are more or less confined to your body paragraphs.

– Because it does not follow the typical structure of a story, you may be tempted to Simply write an essay with several way points that come in the form of a store like examples rather than telling the story as you should for their division.

C. Thesis in Conclusion

Including your thesis solely in your conclusion is less common than the alternative the most academic writing contacts. Nevertheless, it corresponds to the typical structure of a story and is therefore perhaps more appropriate to use for the narrative essay. As you drive, you may find it helpful to think about some of your favorite stories from books, television shows, and / or movies and consider how their food. It is essential that you do not simply include a story with a moral of the story is details are unrelated, I rather be interested in the details you share since they’re currently time

As in the previous section A list of pros and cons for this essay structure is included below to help you decide which structure works best for from the previous section correspondence I might do the cause of this section, vice versa.

Pros:

-This structure corresponds to the typical structure of stories where the resolution that the audience is left with comes near the end rather than the beginning. As a result, it is perhaps easier to engage your reader throughout the essay because they are waiting until the end for the story’s resolution.

-Following this structure almost ensures that your essay will be a narrative essay and that you won’t be deducted points for writing a narrative-like essay that does not adequately meet the requirements of this genre.

Cons:

-You may not have experience composing essays with this structure and therefore find it more difficult to write than the alternative.

-If you are not careful, your essay could seem somewhat aimless without a clear thesis in the introduction, and only seem clear when you reach the resolution at the end. Thus, you must be all the more intentional about the details you share leading up to your thesis and have a clear thesis in mind as you draft to ensure the remainder of your essay supports it.

3

Outcomes and Resources

Outcomes and Resources

Seth French

A. Self-Evaluation Checklist

You’re a busy college student, so you probably have several other assignments you’re working on in addition to the narrative essay. Because of this, you will be tempted to spend minimal time revising your essay once you’ve written it. However, know that your grade will inevitably suffer if you spend little or no time revising your first draft. This section is dedicated to helping you revise by showing you what specific outcomes you should aim for with your final draft. The outcomes are broken down by category and are listed in the form of questions you should ask yourself when you have finished your first draft.

i. Content

-Do you have a clear thesis that is strong supported by your narrative?

-Are the details in your narrative cleared relevant to?

-Visionary thoroughly developed or doesn’t like certain this Siri points for narrative structure features and setting, climax, resolution, Etc?

ii. Organization

-Does your sequence of events in details clear and logical progression?

-Does your pussy have a clear Focus both within each paragraph coherence and cross your essay is a whole community?

-Is your title informative and original?

iii. Sentence Structure/Grammar/Vocabulary

– Are there any issues that need to be addressed EG subject-verb agreement, article usage, sentence fragments run-on sentences, Tennessee Quincy, Etc?

– Do you have an effective length of short, medium, and long sentences, or just one category 2008?

-No vocabulary demonstrate variety or do you use the same terms repeatedly throughout your essay?

-Is your meaning clear in each sentence?

iv. Mechanics

-Are there any spelling errors that need to be addressed question

-Have have you capitalized proper nouns in the beginning of each sentence?

-Give the proper punctuation within each sentence and at the end of each sentence

-Does your essay here to the proper formatting guidelines?

B. Useful Links

1. University of Vermont Blog: Scholarly Personal Narrative (SPN) Writing (http://blog.uvm.edu/intrdisc/)

2. Capital Community College Foundation: Verb Tense Sequencing (http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/GRAMMAR/sequence.htm)

3. LAHWFextra: Telling People Pointless Stories (https://youtu.be/3zsM3jBwWIM)

4. Purdue OWL: Starting the Writing Process (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/587/1/)

5. Purdue OWL: Proofreading and Revising (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/561/01/)

4

Sample Narrative Essays

Sample Narrative Essays

Seth French

A. Thesis in Introduction: Based on an Essay by Xihong Su

Essay Prompt:  Overall, has technology made your life better or worse? Think of specific moments in your life that illustrate how your relationship with technology has developed throughout your life in order to answer this question. Keep in mind that you’re not just telling a story. You’re writing an essay to support your response and using stories from your life to illustrate your answer. You should incorporate details to highlight your point and engage a reader’s interest. Your essay should be approximately 750 words.

Xihong Su

ENGL

1123.00

Diagnostic Essay

09/14/2015

Mr. French

The Internet Has Made My Life Better

While walking around campus, many students access the internet by phone. They may chat with other people and play games. While attending class, we may participate in class activities and upload homework to D2L on the internet if there were no internet what would happen? What do you recognize that the internet has changed our lives or not, the internet has changed our lives. In my opinion the internet has made my life better.

The Internet has changed the way I can communicate with my friends. I left my hometown I went to the first University about 15 years ago. I was excited that I can make new friends and learn your knowledge from University. However, I miss my friends here in other cities. I often mailed letters with some photos to my friends and told him something interesting on campus and kept in touch with him. That I would take several days or one week to receive letters. Sometimes, a letter might be lost. In June 2001, to my joy, there is a public computer from her students get access to the internet and University. In the first few months, the computer room is full suits all day long. At the same time, the internet chat tool, QQ, became very popular among students. My friends and I were still available, I used to QQ to chat with him face-to-face and hear their voices and saw their facial expressions. How wonderful the internet was! In addition, sending an email partly took the place of mailing a letter. I can post messages with some digital pictures and send them to my friend in an email. An email was almost instant help me learn about information from friends as soon as possible. Now, I can post my latest information and pictures of my Facebook that is a worldwide network service. All my friends in Facebook can see the information comment on it and share it.

The internet provides a lot of helpful information. First, as a student, I need to write some essays and research papers. For example, one of them and I had was to write about King David. Dysart still was King David’s in round two databases and the OSU Library until several papers are most relative to King David. I also put King David Wikipedia and several descriptions of King David from different perspectives. These electronic resources really help me with a thoroughly research paper. Second, after one day of classes, I wanted to make healthy and delicious food to my dormitory. For buying Foods, I look for nutrition information of foods and decide which kind of foods I would buy. After I park my food materials, YouTube videos of cooking Foods guide me to cook food step by step. No matter what models what’s on my cooking skills were, if I follow the guidance of make delicious foods. Third, because I like relaxing myself on holiday, traveling can be very important my light. Before traveling, I might try to find as much information as I can, such as whether Transportation hotels ticket prices in local foods. guys and come in through other people have been to Scenic spots. Thomas and I’ll have information to help me make it better trap my plan about 3 years ago. My husband and I spent one month traveling across half of China and enjoyed the trouble. Therefore, there a lot of electronic resources on the internet. It may be very difficult for me to get such useful information without the internet in a short time.

The Internet gives me more entertainment as well. First come out there a mini games that people can play together on the internet, such as Pop-Tart. I like playing Pop card about four years ago. I did not need to worry about the speed limit or accidents, caused while I was driving the car at the cape. II, many in a payment performances can be found on the internet. It may not be easy to see some live performances on TV, such a TV show us. Our combined TV shows on the internet and see them many times.

The internet enables me to communicate with other people in an effective way. It provides a lot of what kind of information and increases the speed of opinion formation that I want. It also in which is my life. Therefore the internet is really made my life better.

B. Thesis in Conclusion: Based on an Essay by Victoria Ferguson

Essay Prompt:  For this essay you already food near to illustrate a key point about the relation to food culture and slash for identity keep in mind that you’re not just telling a story you’re writing an essay to support your main point in using a narrative using corporate details about your poison engage readers centers. Your essay should be approximately 750 words.

“You’ve gotta’ try this!”

My obsession with trying different types of food begin my dad’s second floor apartment in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The apartment was cool because it’s on the second floor that’s 10 steps leading upwards to the small patio and driveway that was teeming with many varieties potted plants. A person has anybody could see the soft blanket of colors in the flowers made against the railing of the patio – 10 urban jungle. My dad always had an interest in things that many, who controls, I would call him in it. Send it fits and passions considered consisted of potted plants, metrosexual fashion, wine, and of course, fine cuisine. Identify the type of person to buy the freshest ingredients possible to draw the most recent recipe had read in either His friends return cookbook. He also enjoyed coming home with the most foul smelling cheese you can imagine because according to him the stinky cheese at the best! Listen to calendar events are also extended into our extreme

Dad always had a way of finding me to call the hole-in-the-wall place. He always told me that the hole-in-the-wall places always have the best food! And boy, did we live by this matter. We often found ourselves a restaurants where we the only pair of this book English. Mexican part of town at restaurants the most delicious, authentic food in town. We would also go to many different Asian restaurants in on social occasions, we ended up in the night is French restaurant in town and ate delicious, escargot and flaky bread.

My most vivid memory of adventuring into the world of food occurred at a small hole in the wall Japanese restaurant called Ichiban I was 7 years old and I love Pokemon. The place is barely even visible from the road. When you walk through the ordinary glass, you found yourself inside of the elegant world of Ichiban. Little red kitchen chairs were neatly placed around Square wooden tables. The red cushions gained even more vitamin C do to the overall reddish glow of the restaurants interior. The soft, read lighting beans lanterns that seem to float in the air, like Lily blinz that have been left behind after skipping a child clutch. Bottles of Kikkoman Brown brand foot so I saw spend their homes Atop The Square wooden tables, and seemed to accessorize the little red cushion chairs. When we were seated, I did as any restaurant Patron does: I looked at the menu and stepped on the glass of ice water in front of me.

Cuz I was exploring the menu my dad leaned over and said to me you’ve got to try taco salad in point the first thing I thought of when my dad said taco salad was the yummy combination of ground beef cheese pico de gallo salsa sour cream and berries toppings of the consumers choosing, that would all be served up in a crunchy, taco shell bowl. That’s the name taco salad. When my dad asked me to try food, I was always expected to give it a try. I was never that kid who got chicken for spaghetti at every restaurant.

Has a Fearless an open-minded child who would never be labeled as a picky eater. When my dad said we had to try the taco salad, I of course agreed order it. When it arrived, I realize that this is not the type of salad I’d envisioned. In front of me was a pure white bowl in the shape of a flower. And it’s in a recordable bits of cucumber with sesame seeds, fresh strips of something soft and green, and glistening pieces of white etched in pinkish purple. My dad was smiling at me.

I picked up my Chopsticks and put one of the thin white slices into my mouth. It was strange to even agree delicious! We had ordered Taco son, gold octopus and vegetables in a sweet-savory vinegar sauce. That day at Ichiban, and miraculous transformation happened the seven year old girl, who like Pokemon I was sitting on her bed cushion chair, fell in love with Asian Cuisine. I began to make connections between food and culture. Japan is an island nation surrounded by bodies of water. With this abundance of water, the Japanese enjoy many seafood dishes that are not typically served in other cultures. One of those strange pictures of octopus. The simple elegant Furnishings the restaurant in a beautiful white bull in the elegant arrangement of each item in its width of the Japanese attention to meticulous detail and one is for precise rituals.

I’m forever grateful to my dad for taking me out of my comfort zone. He made me  give different and exotic foods a try. This did something even deeper for me than 10 lies my taste buds and made me love and appreciate cultures other than my own. Food is now the focal point of my experiences with other cultures, and I’ve lost ninja life on cross-cultural 3D thanks for the simple phrase my Dad loved to say you got to try this!

II

Writing for Information Purposes

At the university much of the writing that you do will be for the purpose of communicating information. In some cases, you will write to demonstrate your own understanding of specific information. For example, in exams or assignments you may be asked to explain or summarize information that you have read or heard in class. In other cases, you will write to inform others about a topic on which you have gathered information. Examples of this include reports about experiences, surveys or lab activities, as well as papers in which you read sources and describe previous research on a particular topic.

Because the specific purposes and audiences for informational writing very greatly, it is important to pay close attention to the assignment and to consider who the proposed audience is for your writing. The key to writing to convey information effectively is to understand the point of view and previous knowledge of your reader. If the audience is your instructor, make sure that you understand his or her expectations. Carefully read any information your instructor provides about the assignment and make sure you understand what criteria the instructor will use to evaluate it. If the instructor provides a rubric or a grading sheet, look at this before you start writing, and think about how you can best shape your writing to fit the guidelines. If the writing assignment has a different audience, you should try to find as much information about your possible readers as you can. You need especially to consider how much the possible readers know about your topic and try to match the amount and type of information you provide to what those particular readers need to supplement what they already know. For example, if you were writing about a concept or idea in your major for advanced students in that major, you would assume that they already know something about basic information in the field. On the other hand, if you are reading to introduce first-year students to the same topic, you would need to provide much more background information. You might need to explain unfamiliar terms, give more details, or explain more specifically what links one point to another.

FOCUS: Reader’s Knowledge & Point of View

1. Assume that you are writing for a person of your own age from your own country. Describe your favorite food from your home country.

2. Assume that you are writing for an American university student who has never been to your country. Describe your favorite food from your home country.

Compare your two descriptions. How are they different? Why?

5

Writing from readings: Definitions and Examples

Writing from Readings: Definitions and Examples

Carol Lynn Moder

In academic settings, writers commonly base the content of their writing on materials they have read.  For example, an instructor might ask you to describe or discuss specific information from an assigned reading (see Example 1). The first step to approach this writing task is to carefully read the assignment in order to make sure you understand what it will require.

Example 1:

Using information from The Cultural Feast and other assigned readings, Define ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Provide specific examples of your reactions to the readings that might be instances of each.

This assignment indicates that the instructor expects you to use one key reading, called The Cultural Feast and other related readings to answer the question. The assignment makes clear that you need to have read these texts carefully and to refer to the text in your answer. So how do you refer to those texts correctly?

Informal In-Text Citations

As you saw in earlier chapters, there are a variety of ways to refer to another text in your writing. For many kinds of writing, you will have to use a formal documentation style, like APA, for your in-text citations and you will have to provide a reference page, as well. And other kinds of writing, particularly if you are referring to readings assigned for a class or if you are writing in a magazine or newspaper style, you may be allowed or expected to use a more informal way of referring to a text. You should check in with your instructor about which approach he or she expects you to use.

Note that the assignment an example one refers to the key text as The Cultural Feast. Here the instructor uses the title of the text and puts it in italics. The italics show this is the title of the book. Know if you are writing by hand, you would underline the title of the book, The Cultural Feast, since you can’t put it in italics. The title of an article or chapter would usually be put in quotation marks. In answer 2, we see this in the use of  “Eating as a Cultural Affair.” In this example, the writer puts the title in parentheses and gives the specific page number, a variation on a more formal in-text citation. If the instructor uses an informal citation in the question, it is probable that you can use it in your response. Remember, though, that it is always a good idea to ask the instructor what in-text citation format he or she expects.

A second in text citation strategy is to use the name of the author of the article or book. We see this in Answer 1, where the student writes: “In Davidson’s article…”

Examples of informal in-text citations

In The Cultural Feast, ethnocentrism is defined as…

→Title of book in italics

The chapter, “Eating is a Cultural Affair” describes…

→Title of chapter in quotes

Bryant, DeWalt, Courtney & Schwartz highlight “ “

→Authors’ last names

According to Bryant and colleagues,….

→First author’s name, ‘colleagues’ used to avoid listing multiple authors

The two most important aspects of citing texts to display knowledge are to be sure that: 1) you refer explicitly to each specific reading you mentioned and 2) you make very clear when you are paraphrasing ideas or examples from the readings.

Reading the assignment CAREFULLY

The most important part of writing to display knowledge is to read the assignment VERY CAREFULLY and make sure you understand how many parts the question has and what they are. The most common mistake that students make on such writing tasks is to read the question too quickly and, as a result, answer only part of it. The assignment in Example 1 asks the student to do two main tasks: DEFINE and PROVIDE SPECIFIC EXAMPLES.

This is a typical format for some reading-based assignments and exam questions. In the two sample answers below, we find two different ways of organizing the response. In Answer 1, the writer addresses the first part of the question, defining the first term in the first sentence into the second term in the second sentence. The writer then provides examples in the following sentences. This answer follows the order of the question – defining first and then providing examples. In short answers of this kind, it is critical for the writer to make clear how he or she is connecting each definition to the examples. One way to do this is to repeat key terms from the question to show clearly how the examples illustrate the terms.

Look at Answer 1 and underline each place where the writer uses the key terms ethnocentrism and cultural relativism or a variation of those terms. Why does the writer repeat the terms in those places?

In this kind of writing, you need to be very clear which examples show the meaning of each term. Remember that you are writing to display your own understanding of the terms. You should not leave it to the reader to guess.

Answer 1

Ethnocentrism is one’s belief that they are superior and they judge other cultures based on the values and standards of their own culture. Cultural Relativism is the idea that a person’s beliefs or behavior should be understood by others in terms of that person’s own culture. When reading about eating insects in Eating is a Cultural Affair, my initial reaction was that it was gross and weird but I realized that I was being ethnocentric, rejecting the idea because it is odd in our culture. After stopping to think, when I tried to be more culturally relativistic, I realize that it is a common occurrence in many cultures in the insects can actually be a good source of protein. In Davidson’s article, he describes the Europeans as having ethnocentric reactions to the new foods that were brought back from the Americas. They quickly adopted the new beans, because they were similar to some European varieties, but the stranger, unfamiliar foods, like tomatoes and potatoes, were viewed with suspicion and even assumed to be poisonous. The description of body images in The Cultural Feast takes a cultural relativism viewpoint, describing the health and beauty values that led traditional Polynesians to prefer fat bodies. We may not agree that obesity is beautiful, but we can try to understand how the Polynesians can see it that way.

In Answer 2, The writer uses a list format, giving the definition of the first term and then putting a specific example underneath it then the writer gives the second definition and puts an example underneath that. This list format requires less writing and uses that kind of outline to make clear which example goes with each term.  some instructors might welcome this abbreviated answer format, but others may prefer a fully written answer like Answer 1. Before you use an abbreviated answer format, ask your instructor whether or not it will be acceptable.

Checking the answer.

Re-read Assignment 1. Then look at Answer 2 and discuss whether or not the answer fully answers all parts of the question.

6

Writing from Data

Writing from Data

Carol Lynn Moder

Many academic writing tasks require you to present information that you have gathered or that you have been given in to explain or interpret the information. One common way of presenting data is to use a table.

Answer 2

- Ethnocentrism: viewing others cultures to your culture’s lens and assuming that other cultures are inferior to yours. “The uncritical acceptance of one’s own value system and lifestyle as the most appropriate.” (“Eating is a Cultural Affair,” page 100)

Ex. In colonial times, British people looks down on South African people for their Reliance on cassava since it is low in nutrition but didn’t require much cultivation, so they called it the “lazy man’s crop” and discouraged its cultivation. This reduced food security a bit, etc. (“Eating is a Cultural Affair,” page 100)

- Cultural Relativism: (reverse of ethnocentrism) Viewing each culture as adequately equal to each other in value and vests understandable within its own set of beliefs and values.

Ex. Acknowledging that herders benefit from having multiple wives but still finds polygamy unacceptable. (“Eating is a cultural Affair,” page 100)

Many beginning writers simply take the tables that they get from a database or statistical package and insert them into their writing this practice is not usually very effective. When you present data in a table you should consider whether the way you have labeled and organized it will be understandable to your audience. You should also consider what your purpose as a writer is. Why are you presenting this information? What is the main idea that you want to convey? Even when we are presenting numerical data, we as writers need to consider that the thesis of the writing is and how we can make it clear to the audience. One important way of making sure the information in a table is clear is to provide good labels.

TABLE 1: Health Statistics 2002 – 2003

France

USA

Life Expectancy

72 years

69.3 years

Percent overweight (Body Mass Index ≥25)

Men

49%

68%

Women

35%

51%

Consider Table 1. The title on the table “Health Statistics 2002-2003” gives the reader a very general idea of the kind of information the table will contain and the dates it was collected but it does not help the reader to understand what the writer’s main point is in presenting the table. What does the writer want the reader to focus on? By looking at the headings for the columns on the right “France” and “USA,” we can guess that the writer’s focus is a comparison of the two countries. The information in the rows suggests that the comparison will be related to “life expectancy” and the “percent” of the population that were “overweight.” By looking at these labels we can figure out what the purpose of the comparison might be, but it would be much more effective if the writer put a title on the table that made its purpose explicit.

FOCUS: Labelling Tables

Brainstorm some better titles for Table 1. Consider how each title might indicate the writer’s main purpose.

Why do you think the information about France is in the first column? What does the order of the columns suggest to you about the writer’s focus?

The second key way to use the presentation of data to support your main purpose is to explain the information in the table is clearly in the text of the writing. Do not assume that a reader will look at the table and understand it the way you intend.

FOCUS: Comparing for a purpose

Look at Table 1 and write three statements that use the information in the table to compare France and the USA.

Think about the three statements you have written. How could you use them to develop a thesis? What would the thesis be?

The information in table 1 comes from an article by Paul Rozin in which he examines what has been called “The French Paradox.” From an American point of view, the paradox is that the French appear to eat food that is rich and high in cholesterol – including cream, high-fat cheeses, and meats – but they seem to be healthier than Americans. Since Americans generally believe that diet is a main factor in health and disease and since many died experts in the U.S. recommend low-fat diets, this combination of a rich diet and good health appears puzzling. To investigate the paradox, Rozin and his colleagues conducted a survey of the attitudes about food of French and American college students. Some of the survey results appear in Table 2. In Table 2, we provide the very specific title of the table that Rozin used in his article. Note how clearly it defines the source of the information and its purpose. The box below gives an example of how the results of the table could be described in the text to highlight the main purpose of the writer.

Table 2: Attitudes Toward Food and Eating among College Students in Paris, France, and Philadelphia, United States, Based on Responses to Word Associations, Scenarios, and Self-Assessment

The French

Americans

Word Association: Cream → unhealthy

26%

58%

Prefer an inexpensive nutrient pill to eating

10%

27%

Prefer, at the same price, a luxury hotel with average food to a modest hotel with gourmet food

11%

77%

In text description of Table 2 (based on Rozin 2005, p. S2010)

Table 2 illustrates some major differences in French and American attitudes toward food and eating. For example, compared with the French study participants, much higher percentages of participants in the United States associated the words “heavy cream” with “unhealthy.” More Americans said that they would prefer consuming an inexpensive nutrient pill to eating. Americans were also much more likely than the French to prefer, at the same price, a week at a luxury hotel with average food over a modest hotel with gourmet food. Overall, we found that for our survey participants, compared with Americans, the French seem to consider eating good food a more important part of life than Americans do.

Language Focus

Look at the in-text description and underlined phrases that are used to present comparisons:

- compared with

- much higher

- more

- much more likely than

- more important than

Table 3 shows the results from the same article of a comparison of the serving sizes of food in restaurants and supermarkets in France and the United States.

Table 3

France

USA

Restaurant

McDonald’s

189 grams

256 grams

Chinese

244 grams

418 grams

Supermarket – Most common size

Yogurt

125 grams

227 grams

Coca-Cola

330 grams

500 grams

FOCUS: Introducing Tables and comparing results

Write an informative title for the Table 3.

Write an in-text introduction for Table 3.

Write a comparison of the results for France in the United States.

Be sure to use some comparison phrases.

7

Variation and Complexity

Variation and Complexity

Carol Lynn Moder

When making comparisons between and among groups, you need to be careful not to make overgeneralizations. For example, you would not want to say “French people are healthier than Americans” or “Americans do not care about the quality of their food.” In all groups there is some variation and a writer needs to be sure to limit big generalizations to avoid stereotypes that suggest every member of a group is the same.

First, you need to be careful NOT to assume that the people who responded to the survey represent all Americans are all French people. For one thing, the respondents were college students. Older people in each country or less educated people might or might not respond similarly. If you are writing from your own experience, you need to be careful in the same way not to assume that the people you have met are just like everyone else in their group. If you are writing about general assumptions that people have about different groups, you should be aware that all general statements about a group are likely to be stereotypes that ignore vast variation and differences.

Secondly, even within each group of the college students surveyed in this example, there is variation. If we look again at the percentage in Table 2, we can see that none of the answers had 100% responses. Though a larger percent of Americans than French surveyed said they would prefer to give up eating and take a pill instead, it is worth noting that only 27% of Americans said this, compared to 10% of the French respondents. So, the vast majority of Americans, even in this survey, (73%) said they would not want to do this, as did 90% of the French. If we think about the percentages in this way, we could accurately say that the responses show that the great majority of Americans agreed withthe great majority of the French respondents in this question.

Limited Findings

Look back at the in-text citation for Table 2, and underline the words the writer uses to restrict the findings only to the amount of difference in the data:

- much higher than

- much more likely than

- more

- for our survey participants

- seem to

On the other hand, for the hotel question, 77% of Americans prefer to luxury hotel, whereas only 11% of the French agreed. Here the difference between groups is much bigger, so we could be more confident about saying that most of the Americans responded differently than most of the French. Even so, we should still keep in mind that 23% of the Americans agreed with the 89% of the French who would rather have a modest hotel and good food. This means we could not say “Americans don’t care about food,” since almost one-fourth of the Americans in the survey said they did care more about food than a fancy hotel. We have to be careful to draw conclusions that fit the evidence and are not too general. If you are making a comparison that is not based on actual data, you need to be even more careful to limit your statements about each group.

Table 4 comes from another article by Paul Rozin[1]. In this article, he reports the responses of college students in India and the USA two questions about Traditional Values concerning obeying and respecting parents and Elders. Note that the responses suggests some contrast in the American and Indian responses, but also show a lot of variation within the groups. The responses are also separated by gender, suggesting that the author expected some possible variation among males and females in each group.

Table 4: Comparison of Hindu Indian and American College Students on “cultural attitudes (% agree with each statement)

Indian Females n=85

Indian Males   n=64

American Females n=140

American Males n=75

1. It is immoral for adults to disobey their parents

80

72

13

19

2. Even if it goes/went against my own feeling I often obey/obeyed my parents’ judgements on matters of importance to me

78

58

50

53

3. Old people deserve more respect than younger people in society

72

68

37

44

Focus: Variation & Complexity in Group Comparisons

Using the information in Table 4, write 3 statement comparing the responses of these Indian and American college students.

Be sure to clearly describe the variation and to limit your statements to fit the data.

1. Paul Rozin (2003). Five potential principles for understanding cultural differences in relation to individual differences Journal of Research in Personality 37 (2003) 273–283 ↵

8

Organizing an Essay

Organizing an Essay

Carol Lynn Moder

When you are asked to write longer assignments, you will need to consider what your topic will be and what you want to say about it. And many academic contacts, your longer assignments may be in the form of an informational essay that will present several points in support of one main idea about the topic. The writer’s main purpose is normally stated in a thesis statement. Depending on the type of essay you are writing and your purpose, you may have a choice of whether to put your thesis statement in the introduction or in the conclusion. An informational essay, most American academic audiences prefer you to State the main purpose of the essay explicitly at the end of the introduction.

When a thesis statement appears in the introduction, it not only states the writer’s purpose, but typically it also gives the reader a preview of the main points of the essay and the order in which the writer will present them. For example, if the thesis statement is: “in this paper I will discuss the three main factors that affect success in college prior education, motivation, and the time devoted to assignments,” the reader expects you to discuss these three factors IN THE ORDER YOU MENTIONED them 1. prior education 2. motivation 3. time devoted to assignments. You should give some thought to what order will be most effective for the information you are presenting. Be sure that your thesis statement presents that order clearly and then follows that order in the body of the paper.

Following the introduction, it is typical to present each of your main points in a single unified paragraph. The most coherent way to organize the paragraphs in your writing is to introduce each paragraph with a TOPIC SENTENCE. As its name suggests, the topic sentence is usually a single sentence that states the topic, that is, the main point that the paragraph will illustrate or discuss.

Sample Thesis Statement & Topic Sentences:

Thesis Statement:

In this paper I will discuss the three main factors that affect success in college: prior education, motivation, and time devoted to assignments.

Paragraph 1 Topic Sentence:

Most research concerning success in college focuses on the importance of a student’s prior educational background.

Paragraph 2 Topic Sentence:

Although prior educational background plays an important role, the amount and type of motivation that a student has can make a greater difference in college success.

Paragraph 3 Topic Sentence:

A final important factor in Student Success is the amount of time a student actually devotes two assignments.

If we consider the sample thesis statement and topic sentences, we see that they have more than one function. As we have said, they explicitly state the main point or points of the essay, but they also help the reader to understand how the writing will develop. They tell the reader what to look for in the writing. These sentences are like directions you give to help a person find a particular place. If you give clear directions that highlight the upcoming turn in the road, it makes it easier for the reader to follow the path of your thoughts. A third important function of the thesis statements and topic sentences is to make connections and show the relationships among the points. If we look at the sample topic sentences for paragraphs 2 and 3, we see that they use words that make connections to other ideas in the writing. The words and phrases involved in the sample, help the reader to follow the path of the argument and make sure that the reader is on the right road. Using these connecting phrases leads readers to understand how you, the writer, wants them to put their ideas together.

Once you’ve introduced the main point of a paragraph for the topic sentence, you then must develop the paragraph with examples, details, or anecdotes to illustrate and develop the point. The kind of details or examples you use depend on the purpose and requirements of the assignment.

After you provide these examples, you may want to continue to help the reader to follow your reasoning, by the end of the paragraph for the summarizing sentence or two that connects the example to the overall purpose of the essay. Such sentences are sometimes called “wrap & tie” sentences. If your paragraph is a package that contains one of the main ideas, the final sentence wraps up the package and ties a nice bow on top. The purpose is to make sure your reader understands how you want him or her to interpret your examples and what conclusions you intend. If you do not use a wrap and tie sentence, you are leaving the “package” open and your reader can put whatever he or she wants inside. In American academic writing, readers usually expect a writer to make his or her interpretation is clear and explicit as possible.

When you have developed your writing with an introduction and the appropriate number of body paragraphs, you then need to draw a final conclusion. The conclusion typically appears in a separate paragraph. Like “wrap & tie” sentences, the purpose of the conclusion is to direct the reader to the interpretation that you intend. The most basic conclusion reiterates the main points of the writing. It may also highlight some of the key examples. It must connect these to the purpose stated in the thesis statement and draw a final conclusion.

As with all kinds of academic writing, before you begin to develop your content you should look carefully at the assignment. Sample assignment 2 requires the writer to develop content about food that would compare and contrast food practices in the US with food practices in his or her home country. to gather information about American food practices, each student interviewed an American student. The assignment requires the writer to use information from the interview. The purpose of the comparison is to relate food practices to cultural or individual identity. It requires students to use three themes from the interview to illustrate the main point.

**IMPORTANT NOTE**

In the PDF, some tables and textboxes were covering up each other making them unreadable. The tables/textboxes that follow, were the ones that were ables to be read.

***

Sample assignment 2

Compare and contrast to food practices, yours and that of a person you interviewed, focusing on the way that food relates to cultural or individual identity. Include at least three themes in your essay. Compare aspects which are similar and contrast aspects which are different.

Sample Introduction 1

What Food Tells us about the US and Saudi Arabia

Societies are often complicated to any stranger. They are hard understand completely, for an individual who does not live in that society, yet there is a way to understand them. the products of a society tell a lot about it. For example, artists Express the views, ideas, beliefs and important issues of their society using their passion in doing certain art. Music, paintings, statues, and poetry convey the background of an artist. Such works of art carry an enormous amount of information, that need to be analyzed by an expert, which brings us back to the complexity issue again. Foods are the products of each society that can be easily understood. According to Rozin, (2005) food takes a wider role than just nutrition, and identifies where people are from and what ethnicity they are. Food and food practices tell a lot about one’s culture and identity (p.s 108). Cooking food, just like art, explains many aspects of a society but in a simpler way. To gather information about American food and culture, I interviewed Mike, an American student. Through the conversation, the similarities and differences between the two cultures, his and mine, emerged. Food cuisines are significantly impacted by immigration in both Saudi Arabia and the United States. Also, in both countries there are foods that are associated with particular events and celebrations. However the involvement of fathers in food is different from that in the US.

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Sample Introduction 2

Differences of Food Between Different Countries

Today we all live in an increasingly diversified world. That not only means differences in economy and politics, but also means the diversification of food cultures. Even though we all live in the same world, there are many differences and similarities and different countries and areas. In order to find the differences of food between two different countries, I have interviewed Sandy, an American girl from a small city in the Midwest. Through the half-hour interview, we talked about many aspects about food.

FOCUS: Critiquing the Introduction

Look at Sample Introduction 2 and Sample Introduction 3 and evaluate how effectively each one:

- Identifies the topic

- Captures the interest of the reader

- States the main purpose of the essay

- Specifies the themes that will be discussed

- Outlines how the essay will develop

- Meets the requirements of the assignment

What should each writer do to improve each introduction?

Sample Body Paragraph 1: Differences of Food Between Different Countries

Immigrants bring their cuisines with them to the country they move to. In the US the number of immigrants is enormous. It is almost a country that was populated by immigrants and it is the country where the salad bowl metaphor is perfectly applied. Their food Cuisine is a mixture of different Cuisines from around the globe. For example, Mexican, Italian, Chinese and Japanese dishes are popular in the US. When I asked Mike to tell me more about the cuisine in his home state of Florida he said:

Since the Spanish came to Florida originally you have that influence. So you have Spanish cuisine there. You also have a lot of people from New York who come down to Florida to retire because the weather is a lot nicer in Florida, so they Regional food is common.

According to Mike, immigration plays a role in Florida’s cuisine. Similarly, Saudi Arabia is a country where Muslims from around the world come to practice rituals throughout the course of the year;  moreover some stay for the rest of their lives in Saudi Arabia. Also, a small fraction of the immigrants come to work in Saudi Arabia. Those immigrants, just like others, bring their own unique dishes with them. They become popular with time. For instance, Egyptian, Moroccan, Pakistani, and Indian dishes are common in Saudi Arabia. Although the numbers of immigrants very, both countries have been impacted in the same manner.

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FOCUS: Body Paragraph 2

Look at Sample Body Paragraph 2:

1. Underline the topic sentence. Does the topic sentence clearly identify the topic of the paragraph? Does it connect to the thesis statement? Does it connect to the idea in Body Paragraph 1?

2. What examples or details does the writer use to support his main point in this paragraph? Do all the details contribute to the main point? Are any details not related to the topic of the paragraph?

3. Underline the wrap & tie sentence. What interpretation of the examples does the writer offer in the sentence? Does this interpretation support the thesis statement?

4. What improvements could the writer make?

Sample Conclusion: Differences of Food Between Different Countries

The US and Saudi Arabia have similarities and differences when it comes to food and food practices. Both had an immigration era that impacted their food significantly. Also, both countries link food items to special occasions, which tells a lot about their past and roots. Finally food preparation responsibilities and habits are different, conveying that the family structure and dominance are different too. To sum this up, food is a good was to understand and even compare to cultures. Moreover it is easier and much more fun to understand a society by food than it is by art.

FOCUS: Conclusion

1. Read the Sample Conclusion.

2. What information does the first sentence provide?

3. How is the information in the conclusion related to the body paragraphs?

4. How does the writer link the Introduction and the Conclusion?

5. Consider the final sentence. What information does it convey? How effective do you think this concluding sentence is in highlighting the writer’s main point?

Sample Comparative Essay

Changing Food Practices in Saudi Arabia and the U.S.

Informative Title

Food practices illustrate a complex relationship between tradition, environment, and individual behavior. College students show this relationship well because they often make adjustments in their food habits when they are away from home in a new place. In this paper, I will describe my food experiences in Saudi Arabia and in the US and compare my experiences to those of Peter, an American student I interviewed. Our experiences show that food is shaped by traditional culture and family but new environments can lead to change in individual food practices.

Introduction
Topic Overview

Describe Method

Thesis Statement

Food practices are usually based on what we learn from our culture and our families. And Saudi Arabia, my family’s food practices followed typical Saudi Arabian gender roles. My father was responsible for purchasing food at the local market, but all the food preparation was done by my mother and three sisters. Because of these typical roles, I never cooked when I was at home. In my interview with Peter, he said that some American families followed similar traditional roles, where the mother was responsible for all the cooking, but he said that in other families he knew the father did a lot of cooking. And his family, his mother was the main preparer of food, but his father sometimes cook special items, like chili or grilled steak. Even so, like me, he never learned to cook when he was at home. From this, we can see that each of our families followed a pattern of food preparation that was common in our culture.

Body Paragraph 1
Topic Sentence

Example: Saudi Arabia

Example: USA

Wrap & Tie Sentence

Although our food preparation practices come from our family and culture, new environments can lead to change. When I got to America, I could not find any traditional Arabic foods where I was living. I really missed those foods. I decided that the only way to satisfy my longing was to learn how to cook some traditional dishes myself. I called my mother and asked her to tell me how to cook some simple items. Soon, I was cooking lunch for myself everyday. When I was in Saudi Arabia, I didn’t like to cook, but now I cook, because I want to eat the famous dishes from Saudi Arabia. Since Peter is studying in his home country, he is able to find foods he likes, but he said that he misses some of the foods that his family used to cook. The food on campus is not as tasty as the food he had at home. He called father and asked him to tell him how to cook chili. Peter does not cook it everyday, but sometimes he cooks it on the weekend as a special treat. From this we see that each of us has adapted to our new college environment by learning how to cook. For me, this was new, since men do not usually cook and Saudi Arabia. Peter learned how to cook the dish his father made, so for him the adjustment was not so big. Both of us enjoy this change and plan to continue cooking.

Body Paragraph 1
Topic Sentence

Example: Writer in USA compared to Saudi Arabia

Example: Peter in the USA at home compared to at university

Comparison:

Writer & Peter

Wrap & Tie Sentence

A new environment can also lead to changes in social food practices. Here at university in the United States, the way people eat and interact is very different from what I did in Saudi Arabia. In Saudi Arabia eating is part of social gatherings. Families sit together during meals, and you also eat with your friends. In the US, most of the time I eat alone. If I ask someone to eat with me, that person is often too busy. Peter said that at home he was also used to eating meals with his family at dinner time, but for breakfast and lunch he just ate something fast. At the university, he seldom sits down for a real meal. Usually, he just picks up something quick and eats it on his way somewhere. He says that he and his friends are usually too busy to eat, which is why they eat so much fast food. Both Peter and I eat on our own a lot here at the university. This does not seem to bother Peter, maybe because he thinks it is a typical American thing to do. For me, I don’t like the change. Eating with friends and family is too important for me to give up the Saudi custom easily. One way I try to keep it is to invite my friends over to my house for traditional Saudi food on the weekend. The environment can lead to change only to the extent that it does not affect practices that reflect strongly-held cultural values.

Body Paragraph 2
Topic Sentence

Example: Writer in US compared to Saudi Arabia

Example: Peter at home compared to at university

Comparison:

Peter & Writer

Wrap & Tie Sentence

Overall, food illustrates that while certain cultural expectations, such as gender roles and social rituals, form the foundation for individual food practices, individuals adjust these traditions in new surroundings. Some of these changes may only be temporary, especially if we think the traditional practice was really valuable and important. For example, I will be very happy to return to more social interaction during meals when I am back in Saudi Arabia. Other changes may lead to more permanent changes. For example, I’ve discovered I like to cook, so I plan to surprise my friends and family with this new skill when I go back to Saudi Arabia. Even though we may value the traditional practices of our families and culture, our desires and our environment do not always agree.  The way we react to new situations highlights the complex relationship between tradition, environment, and individual behaviors.

Conclusion
Summing up main points

Highlighting key details, examples

Final concluding sentence

III

Writing to Persuade

The present chapter focuses on the type of writing used to persuade readers into changing their opinions about a controversial issue. As a college student in the United States, you will often have to employ this type of writing whenever your instructors require you to take a stand on an issue and support your position. Although this task may sound daunting, in this chapter we will show you that you have already been exposed to persuasive writing and informal context this experience may prove valuable to help you get started. Therefore, we will begin by considering less formal genres and topics where persuasive writing is also used from that familiar context we will move on to more formal issues. By the end of the chapter, you should be able to plan, draft, and revise your own academic persuasive essay.

9

Engaging in Discussions about Controversial Issues

Engaging in Discussions about Controversial Issues

Alys Avalos-Rivera

Nowadays, people constantly engage in conversations about controversial issues in different contexts and media. You may have observed that sometimes people are you in favor of one point of view in everyday conversations or when they interact online. Send me use memes, others discuss hot topics through social media, and some even participate in online forums and blogs.  these sort of controversies May deal with real issues but can also address leader topics. We will begin our exploration of persuasive writing considering a rather informal topic discussed in an online Forum.

The Controversy About Female Characters in Science Fiction

Some people argue that women are usually misrepresented in fiction. This means that a great number of the main characters in novels, movies, and even in comics are men, whereas women are pushed into the background to play secondary roles. Just think of how many female superheroes you have heard or read about in your lifetime. Probably not many, especially if you compare the number of female leading characters with cool superpowers to their male counterparts. Right? The same happens with famous movies in the history of the film industry, particularly in certain genres, such as action and science fiction, which have usually been dominated by male figures.

How many famous female leading characters from your favorite movies/video games / comics/animes can you name from the top of your head and one minute?  Make a list and compare it to the male character you can remember in the same amount of time. You can use the table below. Remember they should be leading characters, not supporting characters. For example, if you like the Harry Potter series, you cannot use Hermione Granger and your list,  because in that series Harry Potter is the main character.

Female Characters

Male Characters

In the United States, the lack of female-centered stories has been taken into consideration by the movie industry to create a new generation of leading female characters in some movies such as Kill Bill, the Divergent series, and more recently, the new Star Wars trilogy.  however, some still believe that women are still far from being as well represented as men are. In the first part of this chapter, we will explore the end of the Star Wars series and see whether they feel that the situation has truly changed.

2.2 Presenting a Point of View on an Online Forum.

The following chart shows reactions of Star Wars fans to an article posted on The Guardian’s Website about the importance of having the Star Wars sequel centered on a female character.[1]

Poster[2]

Reaction

Elegant Weapon

Women are not some extreme minority. That said, white women leads in science fantasy films franchises aren’t all that rare: the Hunger Game series, Resident Evil, Mad Max Fury Road, Lucy, Lara Croft, Underworld, Kill Bill, The Divergent series, Sucker Punch.
I get Star Wars was hugely male-centered, but the people acting like a white woman lead in these kinds of movies is so groundbreaking haven’t REALLY been thirsty for a lead in this kind of film… They’re just getting to be commonplace.

Ender_and_Bean

It’s definitely been improving steadily ever since Ripley in Aliens (those others you’ve shared are all fairly new) and now the Star Wars universe can be added to that list.

Mars 457

Nine heroines in fourteen years is hardly commonplace. And none of those approached Star Wars in being any kind of cultural touchstone. Plus, many heroines are pretty poorly designed. For example: Zack Snyder’s idea of feminism is “girls dressed in sexy clothes and shoot things in their imaginary space, but in real life they just get abused and their agency robbed”. After Padme (whose death by childbirth lost me because I thought this was a technologically advanced society and not the Middle Ages, never mind that bull where she can’t muster up the will to live for her children) it’s certainly nice to have a Star Wars heroine who is allowed to take charge and not be damasked or otherwise lose her agency.

Lee_

That’s exactly what I was thinking. You can name a handful that are women, and several thousands that are men; that certainly doesn’t speak to equality or them being commonplace. I think Rey is a very significant character as a female. Speaking of equality, let’s bust out a definition, as the word “feminism” tends to so often invoke automatic reaction as if toward a resentful, man-hating she-beast. This is actually how the term is defined: Feminism- the advocacy of women’s rights on the grounds of political, social, and economic equality to men.

Elegant Weapon

Three of the top 20 films this year were all white women lead big budget science fantasy films. I’m not even including straight fantasy films from this year starring white women like Inside Out or Cinderella. By contrast, the only high grossing fantasy film released this year featuring a woman of color was Pixar’s Home. There were zero fantasy or sci fi films released this year that featured a man of color as THE lead, as far as I can tell. Forgot to mention, Star Wars: Rouge One next year will star a white woman.

Lee_

I’m not really overwhelmed by 15% as an argument.

2.3 Discussion

1. What was the main point discussed by the forum participants in this thread?

2. What is Elegant Weapon’s position on the issue? How does the poster make his/her point?

3. Does any participant agree with the first post? To what extent?

4. What are the arguments used by those posters who disagree with Elegant Weapon’s opinion?

5. HOw does Elegant Weapon respond to his/her opponents in this discussion?

6. The poster nicknamed as Lee_ participated twice in the discussion. Which purpose does each one of his/her posts address?

7. Which side of this discussion seems more persuasive to you? Why?

2.4 Content Focus

Below, you will find 9 quotes from The Forum thread that Express the posters’ opinions about the presence of female characters in science fiction movies. label the quotes depending on the side of the argument they support. Use PRO  for those who believe the use of female leading characters is now a common practice and CON for those who argue that women are still underrepresented in the genre. If you find one quote that you believe is not entirely taking sides, mark it with an X.

1. White women leaves and science fantasy films franchises aren’t all that rare.

2. They (female lead characters)  are just getting to be commonplace.

3. 9 heroines and 14 years is hardly commonplace.

4. Star Wars was hugely male-centered, but. . .

5. It’s definitely been improving steadily Ripley in Aliens

6. Plus, many heroines are pretty poorly designed. For example. . .

7. You can name a handful that are women, and several thousands that are men.

8. Three of the top 20 films this year were all white women lead  big-budget science fantasy films

9. I’m not really overwhelmed by 15% as an argument.

2.5 Language Focus

The participants did not only make statements to express their opinions. They provided examples, made comparisons, and even refuted other posters’ statements using new information and arguments. Match each of the quotes on the right column with the most appropriate communicative purpose on the left. One of the purposes can be used twice.

a. Refuting an opponent’s argument

1. Nine heroines in fourteen years is hardly commonplace. (        )

b. Accepting and refuting

2. It’s definitely been improving steadily (        )

c. Agreeing and emphasizing

3. Plus, many heroines are pretty poorly designed. For example (        )

d. Establishing a comparison to make a point

4. I’m not really overwhelmed by 15% as an argument (        )

e Adding a point and citing examples

5. I get Star Wars was hugely male-centered, but… (        )

6. You can name a handful that are women, and several thousands that are men. (        )

How do the words/phrases in bold prints help the writers make their point?

1. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/30/star-wars-is-a-game-changer-awakening-the-feminist-force-in-little-girls-everywhere ↵

2. These reactions were posted on the Jedi Council Forum at http://theforce.net/↵

10

The Thesis Statement in a Persuasive Text

The Thesis Statement in a Persuasive Text

Alys Avalos-Rivera

Should the US drinking age be lowered?

In the US, drinking alcoholic beverages is illegal for people under 21 years of age (minimum legal drinking age or MLDA). This law has long caused a great deal of disagreement and debates. While some people think it is paradoxical that young people of 18 cannot enter a bar but still go to war, others believe that the law is the best way to keep youth away from irresponsible and heavy drinking episodes (also called binge drinking). The following texts were written by readers of the New York Times” Room for Debate page to express their opinions about the subject.[1]

- Read the comments and underline the readers’ main arguments (reasons to support one position or the other).

- Identify which readers are against lowering the minimum drinking age (CON) and which are in favor (PRO)?

- Which arguments seem the least convincing? Which are the most persuasive? Why?

Mason:

Ever since the minimum drinking age was raised to 21 in 1986 the United States saw just as many if not more issues with irresponsible drinking as they did when the drinking age was 18. One of the major reasons for this is because kids are not learning how to drink responsibly before they can finally drink alone at age 21. If you look at areas that do not have a drinking age as high as the United States you will find that the amount of people that die due to alcoholic accidents in much lower than that of the US. For example, in China there is no drinking age and the rate per 100,000 people due to alcohol is .3% compared to the United States’  2.91%. I believe the main reason for this is because the Chinese can legally grow up drinking with their families and are able to learn how to drink responsibly due to the actions and teachings of their parents.

Erick Ban:

What makes me think people under 21 won’t be responsible? I could drink legally when I was 18, that’s what. I experienced and saw what happens when you give immature brains the right to pollute those brains. We shouldn’t be talking about lowering the drinking age because “If they can buy a gun, join the military and vote they should be able to drink,” we should be thinking about raising the age of those other things. After all, the brain doesn’t fully mature until around 25, right? All lowering the drinking age will do is raise the number of drunk drivers with the least experienced and most accident-prone demographic.

Jonah S.:

Turning 18 in the United States is the gateway to adulthood. When individuals turn 18, they can legally vote, get married and fight in our country’s military. However, one thing these “adults” still cannot do is purchase or drink alcohol. The age at which a person can legally purchase and consume alcohol has been an active discussion since 1984 when the MLDA was raised from 18 to 21. The original reason the United States Legislation Act raised the MLDA was because there had been a rise in alcohol involved fatal motor vehicle accidents. The belief was that by raising the drinking age, there would be fewer accidents on the roads. However, research has shown that raising the drinking age did not solve the problem it was intended to solve. The number of fatal motor vehicle accidents has not gone down since the drinking age was changed from 18 to 21. In fact, this change in law just drove drinking underground and into unsafe environments. Nowadays, 3.2% of deaths in America are alcohol related which is higher than any other country.

Robert Araujo:

Have you ever heard about age of onset? Thombs and Osborn (2013) advocate that preventing or delaying the age of the first use of alcohol is the optimal way to reduce alcohol abuse and dependence in the future. Nobody is saying that alcohol must be forbidden, this is not the case. If they return the law to 18, adolescents may drink at 16 years old. Now, they may drink at 18. Research has documented that the early you drink, the higher the risk you have to become addict: 14 years or younger you have 15.1% of chance to become addict, 15-17 you have 9.1% of chance, 18-20 you have 4.4% of chance, 21 or older you have 2.7%, In other words, we are preserving the future, the integrity of our youth, keep them away from addiction, as best as we can, Say NO to drinking at 18!!!

Kevin Blake:

All of the facts and figures in the world don’t matter to underage high school and college students that want to be cool and get wasted with their friends at the hottest party of the year. If you really want to lower the rates of underage consumption of alcohol and binge drinking, you need to make alcohol a mundane thing. A high drinking age is just prohibition at a targeted group, and everyone knows how well prohibition turned out. You’re not deterring anyone from drinking, you’re just making it a rebellious, fashionable thing to do.

Evan Altenburg:

I believe that the drinking age should remain at 21. I’m not naive, I know that kids under 21 drink and find ways to get alcohol. Lowering the legal age to 18 will simply make the process even easier for them to get it. Changing the drinking age to 18 isn’t going to affect kids 18-21. Those kids are in college, alcohol is everywhere and they have no trouble getting it. Changing the legal drinking age is going to affect 14-18 year old high school students. This model is clearly shown in colleges all around the country. Any freshman can walk onto a college campus and find alcohol almost instantaneously, because every junior and senior can buy it. If high school seniors can go buy alcohol than any underclassman can simply get alcohol from them. That’s how it works now. . .But instead of buying liquor from the 4-5 college dropouts who live around your area, now all you have to do is ask one of the 800 seniors at your school. Seems a little too easy doesn’t it? If anything, change the age to 19 so that high school students can’t buy it.

Although the participants in the Room for Debate’s and Star Wars pages hold different points of view regarding very different topics, they all engaged in their online discussions with a common purpose: persuading their audience of their point of view. They do so in a succinct fashion because their audience does not usually invest much time in reading blog posts that are too long and complex. Therefore, effective blog/forum posters try to be direct and present one single point per post. On the contrary, academic persuasive writing needs to be more detailed and provide the audience with more than just the author’s point of view.

3.2 The Thesis Statement

In another chapter, we discussed the features of an informational essay. In this chapter, we will guide you to understand the essential elements of a similar type of academic text: the persuasive essay. Although informational and persuasive writing follow similar principles such as an orderly presentation of ideas that should be supported with evidence (e.g. facts, arguments, or examples), their purposes differ. The objective is written to take a stance (specific point of view) with respect to a controversial topic and persuade the audience to adopt the writer’s position. Because of this difference, the thesis statement of the persuasive essay needs to introduce the writer’s position in the controversy featured in the essay. Also, the preview of the essay’s structure should outline the arguments that the author will use to support his/her stance.

3.3. Content focus: Rating thesis statements

Considering these features, in the following task you will analyze how six college students drafted their thesis statements for a persuasive essay on the MLDA controversy. In the prompt used by the instructor for this assignment, students were required to address the following purposes:

- Present the PROs and CONs of the MLDA to a group of college students’ parents.

- Persuade the parents to vote in favor of lowering the MLDA to 18 years of age.

In other words, the writers need to take a stance on the issue. Read the TS and assess how well each one fulfills the purposes given above and to what extent. Rate the TS using a scale from 1 to 6, where 6 will stand for the best TS and 1 will be given to the poorest. Be prepared to explain the reasons you have to support your rating.

a. The United States has more accidents caused by drivers under the influence of alcohol than other countries where there is no MLDA (        )

b. Young people should be allowed to drink without legal restrictions based on their age, which is ridiculous (        )

c. Parents should teach their children how to drink alcohol in moderation.  (        )

d. Lowering the MLDA will allow parents to introduce their children to alcohol use under the supervision and reduce the rate of accidents caused by drunken drivers (        )

e. A reduction in the MLDA will help neutralize teenagers’ obsession with drinking, allow parents to monitor their children first encounters with alcohol, and reduce the rate of accidents caused by irresponsible drinking.   (        )

f. Having the MLDA fixed at 21 is only increasing young people’s fascination with drinking in unsafe environments and using false IDs.     (        )

3.4. Guidelines for a thesis statement

What should be considered when drafting a thesis statement for an essay that aims to persuade the audience to take a stand in a controversial issue? Think of some possible guidelines to write an effective persuasive TS taking into account the following:

- How should you address your audience?

- Where in your text should you introduce your stance?

- What language features (words, phrases) could be useful?

- How can you connect your TS with the main arguments you will use in your essay?

Write your guidelines below and discuss them with your colleagues and your instructor:

In some of the thesis statements listed above, the writers use modal verbs such as will and should (see examples b to e in section 3.3). The first one (will) is used to predict the results that could be achieved if the authorities follow a specific course of action regarding the MLDA. The second one (should) is used to recommend what should be done with respect to the MLDA. These and other modal verbs that express advice, convey an obligation, or predict an outcome are often used to introduce the writer’s stance because they are useful to express the speaker’s desires, or his/her ideas of how the world should be. Other modal verbs that are also used with these purposes are: must, can, could, ought to, and also the semi-modal have to.

When using modal verbs to compose your thesis statement, however, you should be careful to select the one that best represents your purpose. The meaning of your thesis statement can change a great deal if you use one or the other. Read the following examples and explain how the meaning has changed with each modal (in bold):

Statement

Meaning

a. Authorities should lower the MLDA to avoid binge drinking.

b. Authorities must lower the MLDA to avoid binge drinking.

c. Authorities could lower the MLDA to avoid binge drinking.

d. Authorities ought to* lower the MLDA to avoid binge drinking.

*Although ought to and must are accepted as standard forms, they are not used in Academic English very often because they imply a strong and categorical position. Scientists usually abstain from categorical statements because these expressions do not convey that the writer remains open to new possibilities. Scientist prefer to maintain a more open attitude in their writing in case new evidence is discovered in the future that can change their points of view about the world.

1. https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/02/10/you-must-be-21-to-drink ↵

11

Organizing Your Arguments

Organizing Your Arguments

Alys Avalos-Rivera

The way the argumentation is presented in a persuasive essay is also special because writers do not only care about presenting their stance. They also want to include the point of view of their opponents to show that they have considered all possible angles of the controversy and have enough evidence to prove that the other side is wrong.

Two Sides and One Controversy

Taking into account the need to incorporate both sides of the controversy, observe the arguments presented in the Room for Debate page, which have been paraphrased for you below. If you were given the task to write a persuasive essay on the MLDA topic, how would you organize these arguments to compose three body paragraphs?

PRO

CON

There are countries without legal drinking age; however, their rate of death caused by alcohol is significantly lower. This is because young people are able to learn how to use alcohol under the supervision of their parents since a young age

Research shows that initiating alcohol consumption at a younger age increases the risk of becoming addicted to alcohol

The number of accidents caused by individuals under the influence of alcohol has not been reduced since the US raised the MLDA. The law only forced young people to begin drinking in unsafe environments.

People under 21 cannot be trusted to drink responsibly because their brains are not fully mature until the age of 25. Therefore, the MLDA should not be lowered.

The MLDA only makes drinking look as a rebellious and cool thing to do. In order to reduce young people’s fascination with alcohol we need to turn drinking into a common practice.

If the MLDA is lowered to 18, younger high school students will be able to access alcohol by associating with seniors they can easily meet at school.

Ideas for body paragraph 1:

Ideas for body paragraph 2:

Ideas for body paragraph 3:

- How did you arrange the arguments?

- Did you present a different point of view per paragraph? If so, what did you include in the third paragraph?

- Did you present the CONs and the PROs in all the paragraphs?

- How did you make the organization work to make your point of view more persuasive?

- Discuss your organization with one of your colleagues. How do your ideas to present your arguments and defend your point of view differ from your colleague’s?

Organization Templates

Although the persuasive essay includes the two sides of a controversy, it does pay more attention to the position with which the writer is siding. The order in which the arguments are introduced is crucial to make the piece more persuasive. Traditionally, writers choose between three possible organization templates:

In organization template 1, writers present three of the arguments that support their point of view (PRO) and one that supports their opponents’ (CON). In the first body paragraph, the presentation of the opponents’ argument is immediately followed by a counterargument. This counterargument is an argument in favor of the authors’ point of view that directly addresses the opponents’ point and nullifies its persuasive power. Organization template 2 shows a variation of the same strategy that presents the counter argumentation on the third body paragraph. By contrast, in organization template 3, the argument/counterargument opposition is used along the three body paragraphs.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Template

Which could be the advantages and disadvantages of these two different organization templates? List them down in the chart below. Compare and discuss your list with your colleagues:

Advantages of Template 1

Advantages of Template 2

Disadvantages of Template 1

Disadvantages of Template 2

Sample Essay

Read the essay entitled “Legal Drinking Age: Twenty-One or Eighteen? Persuasion Time” to answer the following questions

- What is the author’s TS?

- What are the arguments used to support the TS?

- Where are the topic sentences that develop each argument?

- What organization template did the author choose?

- Is the information presented in the argumentation reliable and persuasive?

- Do you think this essay would persuade parents about supporting the reduction of the MLDA? Why? Why not?

- What would you change in this essay? Why?

Legal Drinking Age: Twenty-One or Eighteen? Persuasion Time

By Victoria DeCesare[1]

Alcoholic consumption began for many as a symbol of friends and acquaintances coming together to simply enjoy life and “be merry.” However, in the United States, alcoholic consumption and the law have collided quite often in the past. The most recent and ongoing controversy regarding drinking is whether the legal drinking age should be lowered from twenty-one to eighteen. This is a huge controversy specifically relevant to college students, as drinking at American universities has grown to become a defining part of college life despite the fact that a majority of college students cannot even legally drink. It is clear through the prevalence and dangers of binge drinking among college students and the high percentage of DUI and alcohol-related accidents and deaths that something needs to change in this country. Lowering the drinking age from twenty-one to eighteen would be an effective and beneficial step in changing the binge-drinking culture in this country, encouraging drinking alcohol as a safe and enjoyable activity, and facilitating medical attention for those involved in alcohol-related accidents.

First of all, lowering the drinking age to eighteen will eliminate the thrill of breaking the law for eighteen to twenty year olds. The idea of being re\bellious and breaking the law while still having fun and not harming others in the process is an appealing and exciting idea for many underage college students. With drinking being illegal for those under twenty-one and with the risk of “getting caught” always present and stimulating, drinking tends to become a more furtive act with it taking place in people’s dorm rooms, basements, etc. It is in these situations where drinking becomes the most dangerous, where pre-gaming, taking multiple shots in a row, and trying to get as drunk as quickly and efficiently as possible fosters binge drinking. If the drinking age was lowered to eighteen, there wouldn’t be that thrill to want what we can’t have because it would be legal. In travelling to England recently, where the legal drinking age is set at eighteen, I have observed how Americans visiting, studying, or living in England who are in the eighteen to twenty-year-old range treat drinking completely differently than the eighteen to twenty-year-olds here. In England, those Americans treated drinking as simply a normal social activity because it was legal and there wasn’t that thrill to break the law; in contrast, I only witness the binge drinking and “Get drunk” mentality, rarely, the mentality to drink in a relaxed and normal atmosphere for those under twenty-one range are going to drink regardless of if it’s legal or not. The difference lies in the fact that if it’s legal, there is no peer pressure or temptation to commit something illegal so less risky behaviors and treatment of alcohol will result.

In the second place, because alcoholic consumption is considered an illegal activity for people until they reach age twenty-one, oftentimes teenagers are never really taught how to drink in moderation beforehand and therefore are more likely to abuse alcohol and binge drink. While the National Institute of Drug Abuse (2014) shows that drinking levels among younger people (and the American population in general), are decreasing, younger people are more likely to binge drink when they do consume alcohol (Kennet, 2008). However, I hold that binge drinking could be substantially lowered if the drinking age was lowered. This is because 18-20-year olds would then be able to experience moderate drinking in bars, restaurants, and other venues where there is supervision. Since this is currently illegal under the law, 18-20 year olds are now forced to drink in unsupervised venues were moderation is untaught and binge drinking is encouraged. In fact, having the drinking age set at the age of 21 has not stopped drinking among the 18-20-year-old age group, but has rather encouraged the movement of drinking to such unsupervised places were dangerous drinking behaviors are more likely to take place. The legal drinking age being set at 21 simply perpetuates the lack of a moderating culture in this country. Oftentimes, parents dismiss the idea that they need to educate their child on alcohol. With a lower drinking age, more parents would feel responsibility to introduce their children to alcohol in the controlled environment of the household beforehand as a means of education and instruct them on how to use alcohol in moderation. A Penn State research study (Abar & Turrisi, 2008) even showed a direct correlation between parents’ talking to their child about alcohol before entering college and subsequently lower rates of binge drinking. A lower drinking age would expose 18-20-year olds to a greater multitude of adults who can provide supervisory guidance over how to use alcohol moderately and therefore encourage less risky drinking behaviors.

Many opponents to the lowering of the drinking age argue that it will result in more alcohol-related accidents and deaths, especially while driving. Drunk driving deaths have actually steadily decreased in the past thirty years. In fact, this trend began occurring since 1982, two years before the legal drinking age became twenty-one through the Uniform Drinking Age Act. It has shown that this trend occurred throughout all age groups and various other categories and therefore cannot be directly attributed to the drinking age. An estimated 90% of drunk driving deaths in the United States were found in the over 21 age group so drunk driving cannot be necessarily attributed to age (SAMHSA, 2010). Furthermore, the same source reports that the amount of drunk driving deaths in the United States has decreased at a slower rate than that European of European countries that have their legal drinking age at eighteen or lower. As many people argue that lowering the drinking age is fatal, lowering the drinking age is actually going to save lives. This is because it will reduce the amount of people that become injured due to alcohol or that simply die because of alcohol poisoning who fail, or have others fail, to report their injuries to the police or the ambulance out of fear of legal consequences for underage drinking. Many states currently have laws that protect an underage person from the legal consequences of underage drinking if they go and seek medical attention; however, not many college students are aware of these laws and are still hesitant nevertheless out of fear that it may get back to their parents. Lowering the drinking age would encourage those in the 18-20-year-old range to seek medical attention for potentially fatal alcoholic injuries without fear of potential consequences for doing so, in turn saving the lives of many young adults, especially those in college.

We are all aware of the drinking culture that takes place in this country. Particularly among college students, drinking has turned into a dangerous practice that is the result of the excitement of alcohol’s illegality for most college students and the fact that public officials and adults use drinking as a tool to punish and prevent a potentially enjoyable activity among an age group instead of encouraging the enjoyable and safe practice that drinking can be fore them. Lowering the drinking age, as exhibited around the world, can show how drinking can bring young adults and adults together in a fun, safe way instead of creating a disparity among them. If those young adults in the 18-20-year-old range share the adult same responsibilities that other adults do, then having the right to choose to drink should be no exception. It is time that alcoholic use, especially by college students, becomes a safe practice in this country instead of one whose culture lies concealed from sight and forced to grow uncontrollably and treacherously. It is time that eighteen, nineteen, and twenty year olds finally be trusted as the adults we are considered in every other way.

Reference

Abar, C., & Turrisi, R. (2008). How important are parents during the college years? A longitudinal perspective of indirect influences parents yield on their college teens’ alcohol use. Addictive behaviors, 33(10), 1360-1368. Doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.06.010

Kennet, J. (2008). Alcohol Use. In SAMHSA, Results form the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings (SMA 08-4343). Retrieved from: http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2k7nsduh/2k7Results.htm#Ch3

NIDA (2014) Teen prescription opium abuse, cigarette, and alcohol abuse trends down. Retrieved from: http://www.drugabuse.gov/news-events/news-releases/2014/12/teen-prescription-opioid-abuse-cigarette-alcohol-use-trends-down

SAMHSA (2011). Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings (SMA 11-4658). Retrieved from: http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2k10NSDUH/2k10Results.htm#2.15

Citations and References

- How does the author cite her sources?

- What type of citation system is being used? How do you know it?

- What formatting features do you recognize in the reference page? Have they been appropriately used? Why? Are there any formatting errors? Which ones?

- What type of source is the document authored by Abar and Turrisi (2008)? How do you know it?

- What type of source is the document authored by Kennet (2008)? What information did you use to find this out?

1. Adapted and published with permission of the author ↵

12

Counter Arguments

Counter Arguments

Alys Avalos-Rivera

Using counterarguments appropriately is central to composing an effective persuasive piece. Remember that you should assume that your audience does not agree with you. Therefore, your goal is to make your readers change their mind by helping them see the matter from a different perspective. To accomplish this, you need to begin by acknowledging your audeince’s point of view and then address any weak point in their arguments. This is called “conceding and refuting.” It means that you first partially accept something your opponent says (concede), but then argue that your opponent’s view is not entirely true or accurate (refute).

Examples of Counterarguments

The following examples were taken from compositions written by international students who were requested to take a side in a controversy. Examples 1 and 2 discuss the pertinence of allowing college students use a new technological device called Google Glass in the classroom. Some people believe that this device will enhance students’ learning, while others fear that it will only distract students. If you want to know more about Google Glass, you can click on the link provided in Example 1. Example 3 focuses on the dangers of using nuclear energy and weather it could harm the environment or help to improve it. Read the examples carefully and use brackets to identify where the writers are conceding and where they are refuting their opponents’ arguments.

Example 1

Advocates of Google Glass think that it is a miraculous tool that can enhance students’ learning experience at school. They hold that the device will help students search information about many subjects during class and use class time more efficiently. For example, by using voice recognition technology and screenshots to take notes. Information can be easily registered and retrieved when needed. While this may be true, an excessive dependence on these tools can make students’ minds lose those thinking skills usually needed when taking notes in a traditionally way.

-Khalid Alkhaldi

Example 2

Opponents of using Google Glass on campus claim that it can cause accidents because people would tend to be distracted while driving or riding their bikes. These concerns are understandable; however, plenty of accidents caused by distracted drivers are associated to the use of other devices such as smart phones or car navigation systems. In fact, the National Safety Council (2015) reports that one out of four car accidents in the United States is due to using cellphones while driving. In spite of this statistics, cell phone use is not consider an issue in our campus. Why should Google Glass be treated differently?

-Mirai Nagasawa

Example 3

Scientists believe that nuclear power can solve the energy crisis once for all. Currently, nuclear-based power stations are already used in aircraft carriers and submarines. Moreover, the use of nuclear power can be environmentally friendly because it helps reduce fossil fuel consumption. Although there is some truth in these assumptions, they are based on one condition: that all these nuclear power stations never leak. Unfortunately, bad things always happen. In 1986, the nuclear power station in Chernobyl exploded due to a failure in the cooling system. Thousands of people lost their lives and the environmental damage was appalling.

-Pei Te

Circle those words or phrases that the writers used in their pieces to:

1. Introduce their opponents’ position

2. Introduce the concession and the refutation

Language focus: Phrases and Verbs

Fill the following chart with the phrases/words that you circled in the text:

Introducing the opponents’ view

Concession and Refutation

To present their opponents’ way of thinking the writers used the following verbs: think, hold, and claim. Which other verbs do you think could be useful for the same purpose? Write a list of at least 5 alternative options:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Language Focus: Transitions

To introduce the concession and the refutation, the writers of the examples given above used transitional words such as: although, however, and while. Observe how other writers used these words in the examples below and answer the following questions:

- Where does the concession part appear? After or before the transitional word?

- Where is the refutation placed?

- How is punctuation used to separate concession from refutation?

- Are while, however, and although used in the same way? If not, where does the difference reside?

1. Some researchers have emphasized the importance of peer support in establishing good reading habits. While this support is beneficial, it is clearly not essential to sustain reading.

2. It is true that those who enjoy numbers may be more able to take on billing challenges than others. However, medical billing involves more than comfort with numbers.

3. The use of technology in the teaching and learning of reading has been highly praised. Although it is true that technology does play a significant role  in creating artefacts, these activities did not preclude the students’ need to critically assess the texts they read in their digital world.

4. Colleges and universities have been working hard to provide their students with wider online access. Although these efforts are commendable, they will undoubtedly result in an increase of tuition and fees.

5. Reading interventions programs are often selected on the basis of their availability, familiarity, and ease. While this may seem like a practical approach, it is not always the best way to determine their suitability for students’ needs.

6. Traditionally, the diversity of the learner is defined by ethnicity, economic conditions, and gender. These variables are undoubtedly useful to conform this definition: however, there are other issues of diversity that can affect learning and should be considered. For instance, variable such as visual or auditory abilities or the disposition of the learner should not be overlooked.

With your colleagues, work out a rule to sue while, although, and however to concede and refute. To understand more about these transitional words you can refer to Chapter. . . .

As a final exercise, you can go back to the essay by Victoria DeCesare (page. . .) and observe how she used concession and refutation in her piece. Identify in which sentences she used words such as while, however, and although. Do you think she used them effectively to present her counter argumentation? Why?

13

Writing a Persuasive Essay

Writing a Persuasive Essay

Alys Avalos-Rivera

Now that you are familiar with some of the most important aspects of the persuasive essay, it is time for you to begin planning your own paper. The topic of your piece will very likely depend on the guidelines provided by your instructor. Regardless of the topic, the following material will certainly be useful to help you plan, draft, and revise your work.

Researching and Posting

The topic of a persuasive essay should be a controversial one. This means that there should be at least two opposite points of view and that you take a stand in the controversy. Therefore, once you have decided on the controversy and your stance, you need to do some research to identify the different arguments that both sides use to defend their positions. To help you organizing this information you can used the following chart. An example has been made for you:

Controversy: Do standardized tests contribute to students learning?

Side 1
The use of standardized tests fosters learning

Side 2
The use of standardized tests is against true learning.

Arguments

Arguments

- Standardized tests are objective because they do not rely on teachers’ personal appraisal of students’ responses.

- Standardize tests require the use of personal criteria to decide which contents are included and which are discarded.

- Standardized tests promote fairness since they require all students prove that they have reached the same learning objectives.

- The format and language used in standardized tests is familiar to students who have been raised in white middle and upper class families, but not to students of minority groups.

- Standardized tests are useful to ensure that teachers and schools remain accountable to those who pay taxes to support public education.

- Controversy:

You can use the following chart to list the arguments you found in your search:

Controversy:

Side 1

Side 2

Arguments

Arguments

Once you have a list of the arguments involved in the controversy you need to find the following:

1. What evidence is there to support each one of the listed arguments? You will need to do some secondary research in the library databases to make sure you use reliable information.

2. Which is the strongest argument of your opponents?

3. Are there any weak points in this strong argument that you can use to refute your opponents’ view?

Make a list of the facts and examples you can use in your argumentation and keep a careful record of the sources you will use to back up your claims. For more ideas on how to handle the sources you can refer to Chapter. . .

Outlining

Once you identify your arguments and sources, it is time for you to plan the organization of your essar. There are writers who only think about the organization of a paper and begin to write following a mental plan. Others, however, prefer more structure. If you are among those in the second group, you may need to outline your essay.

In order to write an outline for a persuasive essay, you should remember there are at least three different templates to use. You will also need to figure out the information you will use in your introduction and how you will relate your points to broader issues in the conclusion. You can use the outline structures provided on the following pages depending on the template of your choice.

Template 1 (Counterarguments in the 1st body paragraph)

Introduction

- Broad statements

- Thesis statement

Paragraph 1

- Opponents’ Argument

- Counterargument

- Examples/Evidence

- Sources

Paragraph 2

- Argument 2

- Examples/Evidence

- Sources

Paragraph 3

- Argument 3

- Examples/Evidence

- Sources

Conclusion

- Thesis restatement

- Implications

- Take-away message

Template 2 (Counterarguments in the 3rd body paragraph)

Introduction

- Broad statements

- Thesis statement

Paragraph 1

- Argument 1

- Examples/Evidence

- Sources

Paragraph 2

- Argument 2

- Examples/Evidence

- Sources

Paragraph 3

- Opponents’ Argument

- Counterargument

- Examples/Evidence

- Sources

Conclusion

- Thesis restatement

- Implications

- Take-away message

Template 3 (Counterarguments in each body paragraph)

Introduction

- Broad statements

- Thesis statement

Paragraph 1

- Opponents’ Argument 1

- Counterargument

- Examples/Evidence

- Sources

Paragraph 2

- Opponents’ Argument 2

- Counterargument

- Examples/Evidence

- Sources

Paragraph 3

- Opponents’ Argument 3

- Counterargument

- Examples/Evidence

- Sources

Conclusion

- Thesis restatement

- Implications

- Take-away message

14

Evaluating Your Work

Evaluating Your Work

Alys Avalos-Rivera

Once you have outlined the main ideas you will use in your essay, you are ready to draft your first version. Remember that you need clear topic sentences and appropriate transitions in each paragraphs. In order to to revise your work (and that of your peers) you should check your instructor’s assignment guidelines and make sure your work addresses them to the best of your knowledge. As an alternative, you can use any of the following rubrics.

Evaluation Sheet 1

By Brianna Hook

Instructions: This worksheet can be used during peer review sessions. You may write on this paper and on the author’s essay. After reading and critiquing your peer’s essay, return your responses to the author. Alternatively, you may use this sheet to revise your own work.

1. Read the entire essay. Underline the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. Has the author taken a clear stance on the issue? Are the main points clearly written, logical, and in parallel form?

2. Are the author’s ideas organized in an effective manner? Did s/he follow the same order as the points were mentioned in the thesis statement?

3. Look back over the essay. Describe any point(s) where you were confused, unconvinced, or uncertain of the connections or ideas being explained and expressed. You may suggest transitions or recommend clarification of ideas. (You may also circle those in the essay.)

4. Find three places where you think the author could add more specific information, explanation, or evidence. Suggest specifically what kind of additions could be made (for example, facts, quotes, or statistics).

5. Look at the author’s use of outside sources. Has s/he effectively integrated the sources into the essay? Does the information from sources clearly support his/her arguments/ideas? Has s/he properly used in-text citation to give credit to the sources?

6. If the author only had an hour to make changes, what top three things should s/he do?

7. Now look at grammatical and sentence-level issues (including verb tenses, subject-verb agreement, use of prepositions, word choice, spelling, commas, etc.) and mark these clearly for the writer to see.

8. Lastly, do you think the author makes an overall convincing argument? Could you be persuaded to his/her side? Why or why not? Be specific in your critique.

Evaluation Sheet 2

- This rubric helps you assess your essay considering five categories:content, organization, documentation style, grammar and vocabulary, and spelling/punctuation/capitalization/formatting.

- In each category, you are given three levels of descriptors. The one on the top corresponds to a high-quality sort of essay, the one in the middle describes an acceptable essay, and the one at the bottom applies for a poor one.

- Read each descriptor and check on the lines next to the descriptors that best represent the features of your work.

- Once you finish checking, choose a mark within the range given for each level on the left column. Your rating should fall within the range given for the level where most of your check marks clustered.

Content

27-30

clear thesis and controlling ideas

main ideas clearly stated/well supported

excellent details, examples

content is relevant/appropriate

main ideas well-documented

effective use of published sources

20-26

adequate thesis

main ideas adequately/sufficiently stated/supported

adequate/sufficient details, examples

most content is relevant/appropriate

main ideas adequately/sufficiently documented

adequate/sufficient use of published sources

0-19

weak/no thesis

inadequate/insufficient main ideas/support

inadequate/insufficient details, examples

content not relevant/appropriate

content does not fulfill assignment

ideas not clearly documented

inadequate/insufficient use of published sources

Organization

27-30

excellent introduction, body, conclusion

good sequence of ideas, support

clear transitions

clear topic sentences

excellent coherence/paragraph unity

title is informative/original

good concluding/wrap-and-tie sentences

20-26

acceptable introduction, body, and conclusion

adequately/sufficiently sequenced ideas, support

adequate/sufficient transitions

adequate topic sentences

adequate/sufficient coherence/paragraph unity

acceptable title/matches content

adequate/sufficient concluding/wrap-and-tie sentences

0-19

weak/no introduction, body, conclusion

inadequately/insufficiently sequenced ideas, support

weak/no transitions

weak/no topic sentences

weak/no coherence/paragraph unity

weak/no title

weak/no concluding wrap-and-tie sentences

Documentation Style

8-10

mastery of in-text documentation

mastery of reference page formatting

mastery of page formatting

4-7

some errors in in-text documentation

some errors in reference page formatting

some errors in page formatting

0-3

frequent errors in in-text citation

frequent errors in reference page formatting

many errors in page formatting

Sentence Structure/ Grammar/ Vocabulary

23-25

near-native command of sentence structure

effective use of complex sentences

very few grammatical errors

good use of function of words

idiomatic control of vocabulary

16-22

most sentences grammatically correct

adequate/sufficient use of complex sentences

some grammatical errors

adequate/sufficient use of function words

occasional errors or word/idiom usage

meaning sometimes unclear

0-15

problems with complex sentences

overuse of simple sentences

problems with basic sentence structure

frequent grammatical errors

poor use of function words

frequent errors of word/idiom usage

Spelling/ punctuation/ capitalization/ format (s/p/c/f)

3-5

mastery of major S/P/C/F rules

minor errors in S/P/C/F rules

0-2

frequent (more than 3) S/P/C/F errors

some common errors in S/P/C/F

TOTAL:

Evaluation Sheet 3

IV

Email Guidelines

Communicating across cultures is challenging. Each culture has set rules that its members are unaware of because, cultural norms and values are not taught explicitly, most of the information is absorbed subconsciously.

With the advancement of technology in our world, Intercultural communication has become widely spread via email communication. Be it an academic or professional contacts, email is one of the primary means of communication. Email does not involve face-to-face interaction with the potential audience, however, it does not mean that it should be considered less formal.

International students often worry about how to address an email message to a professor – especially one whom they do not know or they have not met in person. In this chapter, we will discuss some concerns students need to keep in mind when composing an email to their instructors or professors.

15

Cultural Context

Cultural Context

Miriam Kinfe

Addressing a Recipient.

Languages and cultures have different ways of addressing people. In Russian culture, it is essential that a plural form of ‘you’ is used to refer/address someone who is older or in a senior position than the writer. In Chinese culture, addressing someone by their professional or courtesy name conveys respect as Chinese prefer to be addressed formally. In Chinese, usually the title follows the family name. Chinese women use their maiden names even after marriage, therefore marital status might be indicated using Mrs., Ms., Miss, or Madam could be used, but in modern times it is used rarely. In some other cultures, first names are commonly used instead of last names or family names. In such situations, people’s profession is followed by their first names. The salutations ‘Dear Respected Sir/Madam’ are very common in Indian English. This is considered old-fashioned and native speakers of English do not use ‘respected’ in their salutations.

In American context, when addressing a professor use the recipients professional title and last name. For example, assume that you are writing an email to a professor whose name is Ben Jones. The proper salutation is: Dear Dr. Jones or Dear Professor Jones and not Dr. Ben.

Message

Another cultural difference that occurs in email communication is the content of the message the email contains. In some African, Arab and Asian cultures, the message is not clearly specified and it is left to be understood through context, nonverbal cues, and through interpretation of what is actually said in the message. In contrast, English-speaking countries expect messages to be explicit and specific.

16

What to Consider When Writing an Email to a Professor?

What to Consider When Writing an Email to a Professor?

Miriam Kinfe

Subject Header Should Be Informative

You are composing an email for a reason. To inform the recipient/professor about your main reason for writing the email, write the purpose of your message. This is not a salutation line, therefore clearly state the main concern the email intends to address. For example: “Request to enroll in your class”.

Salutation

Make a polite and formal salutation that sounds good to the ears and looks great to the eyes. Do not write ‘Hi professor’ or ‘Hey there’. Instead, address your professor politely and professionally including title and last name. For example: ‘Dear Professor Jones,’ (followed by a comma), ‘Professor Jones’ are polite and professional ways of addressing a professor.

Do Not Use Smiley Faces or Other Emotion, Internet Acronyms and Abbreviations

Email style is not the same as text message style. All Electronic shorthand signals such as LOL, U for “you”, smiley faces and emotions should be avoided.

Avoid Silly Mistakes

Spell correctly and write grammatically correct messages. Show that you care about how you present yourself and writing to your professor.

Paragraph Breaks

If you have more than one concerns, use paragraph breaks to help organize your message. It is hard and boring to read a long paragraph addressing a lot of concerns. Paragraph breaks make your message clearer and easier to read.

Appropriate Closing

Once you compose your email and are ready to send it, make sure you use appropriate closure to your message. The most appropriate ways are ‘Sincerely’, ‘Regards’, ‘Best Regards’ followed by a comma.

Sender’s Information

If it is your first time to email your professor, clearly identify yourself at the beginning of your email by saying: ‘My name is Betty Steve, an undergraduate student in your International Composition class’… etc. At the beginning of your message, right underneath your salutation, write your name.

Another thing that you need to consider is to make your name appear as the sender of an email rather than your email address or username. This means that the recipient of the email knows that the message is from Betty Steve instead of ‘beti_steve12@okstate.edu’.

17

Examples and Exercises

Examples and Exercises

Miriam Kinfe

Example 1: Inappropriate Student Email

Subject: [none]1

Hello Mam,2

I Adya, student of Composition on wednesday^3 group at 5pm.4 I have tried a lot to submit assignment on drop box.5 But still i^6 am unable to do so. Would you please help me?.7 When i click on drop box there ‘no folder found’ is displayed. I am worried about it.

Thank you^8

The example above emphasizes an example of an inappropriately composed email sent to an instructor. Some problems with the email are:

1. There is no subject as to why the sender is composing to email.

2. Mam is in an appropriate salutation to a professor in an American context.

3. Then, the sender introduced herself, which is good. But, she had some technical problems with capitalization (Wednesday-3, 1-6) and space after period (4,5,6,7).

4. The main content of the message has some grammar errors and was not proofread before it was sent.

5. The sender did not close her message appropriately (8).

Example 2: Inappropriate Student Email

Subject: [none]1

Dear Mam^2,

I submit the student information.

Hurray 🙂3

The second example is a continuation of the first one. Subject line is missing, salutation is informal and closing is inappropriate, as the sender use smiley and informal language.

Example 3: Appropriate and Formal Email

Subject: Problem Submitting Assignment 1

Dear Dr. Martin,

My name is Adiya Kumar, a student in your Composition II class. I was unable to post my assignment on D2L. Would it be possible if I come to your office today, at 2 pm in the afternoon?

Also, I have some questions related to our class project. Do we choose our team members or will you assign us?

Thank you.

Sincerely,

Adiya Kumar

In the example above, the sender had a clear subject title that addresses her reason to compose the email. Then, she saluted her professor professionally. Next, she introduced herself, and clearly mentioned her main concern. She used a paragraph break to address another concern related to the class. At last, she concluded her email by a formal salutation and signature (full name).

Exercises

1. Write an email to your professor.

2. Write an email to a friend.

3. What differences have you noticed?

Further Reading

http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/effective-e-mail-communication/

V

Using Outside Material and Avoiding Plagiarism

Learning objectives:

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

- understand the value of incorporating someone else’s sources into your own writing.

- Be more confident about incorporating someone else’s sources into your own writing.

- Be able to distinguish the differences among the following three strategies summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting.

- Decide when to use each strategy appropriately in different situations.

- Interpret and create basic citations in several common formats

- determine the difference between plagiarism of ideas and plagiarism of words

- use the strategies above to successfully use outside material while avoiding plagiarism

18

Using Outside Material

Using Outside Material

Ho'omana Nathan Horton and Yelin Zhao

Why We Use Outside Material

Before we discuss in detail three strategies to incorporate someone else’s work into your own writing summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting, it is of great importance to first talk about why we need to use other writers work. There are several important reasons:

- First of all, at the institutional level, as a student, there’s a great possibility that you will be asked to write a topic, perhaps a new topic that is unfamiliar to you. In this case, you need to first read the work of others and then demonstrate your understanding of others work accurately.

- Second, at a broader level, as an academic writing is a community event, incorporating others’ work is a great way to Showcase your knowledge, add credibility to your writing, and show your membership as part of a discourse community.

Strategies for Using Outside Material

Now we have a general idea of the importance of using others’ ideas. Let us proceed to discussing what summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting mean:

- Summarizing means using your own words to present the main ideas shown in an original source (a book an article etc).

- Paraphrasing involves using your own words to present a specific part/segment from source material.

- Quoting means the segment of the source must be identical to source material, word for word. Notice that this is one of the major differences that distinguish quoting from summarizing and paraphrasing.

Important tips:

All of the above presented strategies require you to attribute ideas (i.e. summaries, paraphrases, and quotes) to the original source. Generally speaking, among the cases in which plagiarism is involved, the most frequent types are not citing the original Source when summarizing or paraphrasing because you might think that there is no need to do so considering you use your own words. However, as long as you have borrowed the ideas (excluding common knowledge), you need to give credit to the author who originally proposed the idea.

Now, you know the definition of differences between summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting. You might have wondered when to use each strategy. Additionally, you might have wondered whether you can use quotations most often, since it is the easiest job to do. Noticed that, in fact, of these three strategies, quoting is rarely used, for several reasons.

When you use direct quotation, you have given up the opportunity to use your own words to display your understanding of the original text for your own purposes. It also signifies the readers that you are highlighting a particular word, phrase, sentence, or passage and trying to distance yourself from the original text as the words are not your own. To use direct quotations effectively, you need to make sure that it is your intention that the quotation serves the above presented functions. Using quotations due to its Simplicity rarely leads to success. When you practice summarizing, typically you should be objective by simply presenting the main ideas in the original text. In contrast, paraphrasing allows for your own comment on the original source.

Giving Credit for Outside Material

Anytime that you use any outside material, it is essential that you give credit for this information. Failure to give credit for either ideas or information which are taken from outside sources is plagiarism, and is a very, very serious offence, even if committed on accident. Plagiarism is discussed in more detail in Section 3.

In my experience as an academic Integrity facilitator, I have encountered many honest students who did not mean to deceive instructors or intentionally claim that outside information was their own, they simply weren’t aware of how or when to give credit for outside material. As a rule, you must always cite any ideas or words that you get from outside sources,  no matter how small they may be. Well this line can sometimes be blurry (for example, do you need to cite a source to support the fact that America was founded in 1776, or is it general knowledge?). Keep in mind that it is always safer to cite the information when you aren’t sure.

We know that it is essential to give credit, but how do we do this in academic writing? There’s a very specific way to give credit in academic writing which we call citing your sources. In almost every form of academic writing this will consist of two parts, both of which are necessary. Before we describe these parts in detail, it may help to see a short example of a properly cite a direct quotation. This example uses APA format. Various formats and citation methods will be discussed in more detail below.

- A reference citation. This provides full bibliographic information in a specific format (defined by your discipline or instructor). These will typically appear on a separate References or Works Cited page at the end of your writing. Reference citations serves two purposes:

- Gives full credit to the author of the work.

- Gives your reader the necessary information to find the original work for themselves.

- An in-text, or parenthetical citation. This is a brief version of the  reference citation (typically containing just the author’s name and the year of the work) which appears right next to the portion of outside material you use, whether you summarize, paraphrase, or quote directly. Like the reference citation, this portion also serves two purposes:

- Indicates to your reader that the ideas or words are from an outside source.

- Gives you a reader a link to the full information in the reference citation so that they can find the information for themselves.

- Take a look at this Wikipedia article about William Labov.  Look at the first paragraph. Try clicking on some of the small numbers in brackets at the end of the sentences. Where does the hyperlink read?

- In-text citations can appear in several different ways, which are typically called author-prominent and information-prominent. Take a look at the above examples, and think about the differences between the two. Why might an author choose one over the other? What are the advantages in each example above?

- Author-prominent citations give the author’s name in the text. This type of citation is typically used for one or more of several reasons:

- The author is well-known (this is probably the case in the example above, since William Labov is a very famous linguist). If the author is famous in the field, mentioning their name first gives credibility.

- The text is addressing the author’s work as opposed to only the ideas or words used from outside.

- It fits more appropriately with the structure of the sentence. This is usually a stylistic choice, and as you can see above, both sentences are grammatically appropriate.

- Information-prominent citations give the cited material first, followed by the reference information.  In contrast to author-prominent citations, these usually indicate a focus on the side of the information. This is typically done when the author is irrelevant to (or less relevant than) the information being cited.

- Given this information, do you think that it is an appropriate method for the example given above?

Different Methods of Citation

There are many different methods of formatting documents and given credit for outside information. These are typically called styles, and while many disciplines and scholarly journals have their own styles of citation, we will describe several styles which are frequently used and which you may be required to use during your academic career: APA, MLA, and Chicago.

Remember that there are different reasons for using outside materials. These reasons can vary by discipline, author, and context. Each of the styles we will describe here gives credit and slightly different ways for different reasons. their extensive official guides  Online which describe the mechanics of citing information in each of these styles which will be given below, so we will only discuss the major differences in the citation styles and some of the possible reasons behind these differences.

Before we go any further, take a look at the in-text citation and reference citation for each of the three styles below, and section 2.4.1 and try to answer the following questions

- What does each of the styles focus on in the citations that the other styles do not?

- What do the styles all have in common?

- What information is given in full, and what information is abbreviated in each of the styles?

Examples of citations

APA

In-text citation

In linguistics, the study of slang has often been somewhat controversial and some have asserted that its study belongs in “an outer, extra-linguistic darkness” (Labov, 1972, p. 97).

Reference citation

References

Labov, W. (1972). Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

MLA

In-text citation

In linguistics, the study of slang has often been somewhat controversial and some have asserted that its study belongs in “an outer, extra-linguistic darkness” (Labov 97).

Reference citation

Works Cited

Labov, W. Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972. Print.

Chicago

In-text citation

In linguistics, the study of slang has often been somewhat controversial and some have asserted that its study belongs in “an outer, extra-linguistic darkness.”1

Reference citation

1.William Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972), 97.

APA (American Psychological Association)

APA style is primarily used in the social and behavioral sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, Linguistics, etc.). You may have noticed that unlike MLA style, the in-text citation used in apa includes the year that the book was published. By showing the years of the work you are citing, you allow the reader to follow the chronological development of the research you cite, and can also show your reader how recent (or historically important) the research you are citing is. Notice that in the reference citation, the author’s first name is not given, only the initial. This is likely because most disciplines would choose this style are more concerned with the research and its findings than with the author of the study. In contrast, both MLA and Chicago style give the author’s full name. Notice also that the year is the second piece of information given, all the other two styles list it last.

MLA (Modern Language Association)

MLA style is predominantly used in the humanities (e.g. art, literature, music, etc.). You may have noticed that the in-text citation for MLA does not include the year of the work. Instead, it includes only the author’s last name and the page number. As mentioned above in the description of APA, notice that the reference citation for MLA gives the full name of the author. This is likely because works in the humanities (e.g. art, literature, music) are often more concerned with the author and his/her work than when the work was published.

Chicago/Turabian

Chicago style is primarily designed for history and art history, but a variation of Chicago called Turabian style was designed specifically for student research writing, and is used in many disciplines and courses, from business to mathematics. This style is very flexible, so we recommend consulting your instructor for specifics about how you should say to using Chicago/Turabian Style.

In contrast APA and MLA style, Chicago and Turabian use footnotes, meaning that information about the work is given in a footnote or endnote rather than in the text. This helps make your writing simpler and less interrupted by bibliographic information. Credit is still given to the author, and your reader can still find the information that she/he needs to find the source for themselves, but the style takes the focus off of the site of information and focuses on your own writing.

19

Avoiding Plagiarism

Avoiding Plagiarism

Ho'omana Nathan Horton and Yelin Zhao

In every part of culture, But especially in the academic world, plagiarism (the unauthorized or uncredited use of someone else’s ideas or words) is a very serious offense, and can result in devastating career and social consequences. Simply Googling the phrase “plagiarism scandal” will reveal many cases of individuals (including U.S. vice presidents) who were caught plagiarizing, sometimes in relatively minor ways, and suffered serious consequences.

Plagiarism is wrong and is taken so seriously because it can be considered both dishonesty and theft. When you use someone else’s ideas or words in your work and do not provide credit, you are essentially claiming that those ideas and words were written by you. Therefore, you are lying about the source of the words, & receiving credit for another’s work.

Plagiarism of Ideas

Plagiarism of ideas is the use of another’s ideas without providing credit. Determining what counts is plagiarism of ideas can be very tricky, especially when riding in another culture. In many ways, plagiarism of ideas can be more dangerous than plagiarism of words, because it is less straightforward and is easier to do accidentally. This typically occurs for two reasons.

- Students believe that information is common knowledge and does not need to be cited.

- What can be considered ‘common knowledge’ varies widely based on your audience. As we have mentioned throughout this textbook, understanding your audience is absolutely essential to writing successfully and avoiding plagiarism.

- To use the example in section 2.3 above, the fact that the United States of America was founded in 1776 is generally known by many Americans (and probably others around the world). However, in an article written for American history experts, this information is clearly general knowledge and does not need citing. On the other hand, in an article written in the field of soil sciences, this may be much less likely known, and may need citation, especially because the reason for giving this information may be found in a specific text (e.g. a law regarding farms was passed when America was founded).

- In addition to the problem of determining what is common knowledge, I’ve seen many students provide facts and information which may be commonly known and accepted, but it is simply untrue. For example, one student mentioned that Arabic contains Millions more words than English, which is simply not true (in fact, English may have more words in Arabic). This is a commonly held belief, especially among Arabic speakers, and while the student’s claimed did not count as plagiarism, the fact that no credit was given indicated that the claim may not be based on reality, and also caused the instructor to believe the student had given someone else’s information as their own.

- Students read an outside source, learn something from it, then give this information without citation.

- Reading is often an essential part of writing, especially academically, and we can strengthen our arguments by supporting them with the works of others. However, it is always necessary to give credit for someone else’s ideas, even if you read them briefly. When you learned information which supports your argument, you must give credit to the author for this information.

Considering the consequences of plagiarism, it is much better to be safe when you are unsure about what is common knowledge, and find a reliable source, then cite their information.

Plagiarism of Words

Plagiarism of words is more straightforward. This involves using words or information (no matter how small the amount) from someone else’s work without providing credit. There are many softwares such as (turnitin.com) which can search the entire internet and compare students work with other published works and report similarities. Remember that is not wrong to use outside sources, and doing so is actually very important too much academic writing. However, it is essential that credit is given when any information is taken from outside sources.

- Note that anytime you paraphrase or quote directly, you must provide a page number for the location of the original words in the text, both to give credit, and to direct readers to that information if they want to find it for themselves.

VI

Evaluating Your Sources

20

Evaluating an Internet Source

Evaluating an Internet Source

Alys Avalos-Rivera

Having internet access opens the door to an incredible amount of information that can be a great help when you’re doing your homework. However, is there are so many options from what you can choose, being selective is a messed up. Otherwise, you can invest a lot of time just reading, listening to, or watching available sources without getting your assignments done. Wherever You should also consider the possibility that some of the information you can find on the internet is not totally reliable, a permit for audience, or relevant free riding purpose. Therefore, the challenge is to generate some well thought-out guidelines did I already given Source, before you decide to use it for your assignment. The purpose of this lesson to tell Pete about these guidelines.

1.1 Interrogating a source

As a first exercise take some time to observe the following reference entry. Before clicking the link spend some time observing the details provided in the entry to answer the following questions.

- What information about the source can you get from this entry?

- What type of source are you dealing with? How do you know that?

- What are the details can you get from the entry?

Source 1
McInerney, L. (2016, February 28). Golden handcuffs for teachers won’t solve the staffing crisis in our schools. The

Guardian. Retrieved from: http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/feb/28/should-teachers-trained-

in-our-system-stay-in-our-schools

Now click on the link and try to find out if your guesses were accurate.

Observe the information provided on the web page and answer the following question

- What  Is / are the names of the authors?

- What is the name of the organization / company / group the insured information?

- When was this information published / posted?

- What do all these pieces of information tell you about the source?

- Would it matter to you if any of these pieces of information were not provided? Why?

As you can see, the article comes from a newspaper. To know more about the information you can find on the different sections of a newspaper, click on this link.

The student has been given the following prompts to guide her as she writes her final papers for three different structures. Read the prompts carefully and decide whether the article from the Guardians Source One would be a good source for any of the assignments. But this article meet the student information needs as the writer of these three papers? State the reasons for your answer.

1. Write a descriptive essay in which you report the different opinions good or bad held by the general public about public vs private education. Repeat should be based on the results of a survey that you will conduct in your neighborhood. The survey will collect people’s opinions about private and public education with respect to the following topics student learning outcomes, quality and availability of learning materials, Local Schools facilities, the quality of teaching, and tuition costs and fees if any.

2. Write a persuasive piece in which you argue that the teaching profession in the u.s. is undergoing a severe crisis. You must include at least three reasons why teachers present situation to be considered as a crisis. You’ll have to support each of your argument with evidence EG statistics, experts opinions, scientific reports.

3. Sunrise at least three different scholarly articles to address the problem of the shortage of teachers in England. Make sure you clearly State the purpose of each study, the method used, and the results obtained in each case. Take into account that you’ll have to present your summaries to a committee of professors in your department who are experts on the topic.

Discuss two reasons that your classmates in your instructor. Compare your answers and opinions about this exercise with their ideas for writing on a public page

1.2 Relevance of liability and appropriateness.

1.2.1 relevance

The pumps in the previous section 1.1 and Source 1 have overlapping ideas with regard to topics and subtopics but also differ in certain aspects. To find out if it is a good idea to use a source from the same as described in the prompts you should consider the similarities and differences.  Let us analyze each case separately.

Prompt a and the newspaper’s article have something in common they both address the topic of Education article talks about the problem with public school teacher salaries in one aspect included in the front also talks about the teachers work, and particularly call you their work. The similarities between the  article and the prompt End there.

Very important differences between the Articles and it prompted that should be considered.

- The assignment prompt clearly states it’s content of the paper should be based on a survey previously connected by the student. The results of the survey will provide first-hand information that the author in this case the student is supposed to collect directly from the neighbors. For this reason, the type of information is considered as a primary source. On the contrary. The article provides information that the newspapers writer has taken from various sources. She is a mission to prove her point. This is why this word document is considered to the secondary source. Thus, the newspaper article is not the right type of source that the assignment print requires.

- The assignment requires information about the quality of public and private education. The article only talks about teachers low salaries. It does not address the other topics required in the prompts such as learning material school facilities, or two dots. Therefore, the information and newspaper article does not fully adjusted contents  listed in the prompt.

Thecontent of the article and the type of information in provide to do not address the prompt. Therefore it could be said that this particular source does not meet the writers information deeds. In such cases, you can say that, maybe interesting and it is what published and a well-reputed newspaper, The Source not relevant for the purpose of this particular assignment. Irrelevant Source should address your information needs is a writer considering the content and type of the source the best it’s reading purpose

Exercise 1

Consider how relevant Source 1 would be to address prompts b and c. Compare your evaluation with your colleagues and your instructor.

1.2.2  Reliability

Let’s revisit prompt b and compared with information available on Source 1

b. Write persuasive piece in which you argue that the teaching profession in the u.s. is undergoing a severe crisis. You must include at least three reasons why teachers present situation to be considered as a crisis. Statistics, experts opinions, scientific reports.

Remember that Source 1 talks about the shortage of teachers associated to the low salaries offered in most teaching positions. Considering that the assignment’s purpose is to argue that the teaching profession is in crisis, you can say that Source 1 is relevant for the assignment at hand. However, when you are preparing an assignment, relevance is not the only characteristic you should take into account. You also need to consider the sources’ reliability.

Reliability refers to the extent to which the text represents reality. When a text is reliable, you can depend on its being truthful, objective, and free from bias (personal tendencies or preferences). Said in other words, a reliable text should be consistent with the world it tries to represent. A reliable source is supposed to represent reality as faithfully as possible by offering facts, evidence, and logical reasoning, as opposed to mere opinions.

A typical obstacle to hinder the reliability of a source is the writers’ bias. This means that writers may sometimes mix their personal opinions in the presentation of the facts, which makes us wonder whether one can truly trust in what they say.

Ideally, we all want information that we can fully depend on or rely on. Unfortunately, sometimes the information we find on the internet may contain claims that are biased. We should take this type of information with caution, especially if you are going to use the information in your assignments. This takes us back to consider whether Source 1 can be considered reliable.
You may remember that the article comes from a British newspaper called The Guardian. At this point you may ask yourself if The Guardian is a well-reputed newspaper and, most importantly, you may ask if newspaper in general can be taken as reliable sources. The answer to these questions is not straightforward. It may greatly depend on the type of newspaper, the reputation of the particular publication, the section of the newspaper where a particular article is published, and the editorial line of the newspaper. To know more about newspapers and how they are classified, click on the following link:types of newspapers and objectivity.

As a rule of thumb, before deciding on using a newspaper article in your assignments, remember that newspapers, no matter how well-reputed they are, may have a political slant (preference or inclination) and most of them are oriented towards profit (after all, newspapers are there for the business). This means that you should always keep in mind that newspaper column writers do not provide “facts” for the sole sake of providing facts. They may be favoring a particular point of view which colors their writing. Therefore, whether the newspaper is owned by a private company or by the government, a conflict of interest is often at play in the presentation of the news. For this reason, always ask yourself:

- What is the political slant of this source?

- Whose interest are the writers favoring in this article?

- What evidence is presented to prove the writers’ claims?

Coming back to Source 1, you should know that The Guardian is a newspaper that has a liberal slant but a good reputation because of its efforts to be as objective as possible. This means that, although the articles published in this publication tend to support the left wing, they usually offer some evidence to support their claims. However, remember that prompt b requires you to write a persuasive essay, which means that you have to offer a balanced argumentation. Using only an article from a left-wing newspaper as your source will not suffice. You need to get other points of view and put them into conversation to make a well-balanced argument. In conclusion, Source 1 is only partially reliable for the writing purpose at hand.

The same considerations that we have discussed about newspapers also apply to all sort of news you can find on the internet such as those on TV networks websites, radio station websites, and online magazines websites, among others. An interesting example to consider is the one of Wikipedia. To find out more about the degree of reliability of this famous open-access encyclopedia, click on the following link.

A couple of ideas that can help you in your search of reliable material are the following:

a) Whether the creator of the source is an expert or professional in that specific field;
b) Whether the source is reviewed by peer professionals in the same field before it was published.

Exercise 2
Look at the following two sources and rate their degree of reliability in a scale from 0 to 10, where 10 means highly reliable and 0 means not reliable at all. [Hint: Where they are from gives hints.]

Source

Rating 1-10

Source 2
Fulbeck, E. S. (2014). Teacher Mobility and Financial Incentives: A Descriptive Analysis of Denver’s ProComp.

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36(1), 67-82. doi: 10.3102/0162373713503185

Source 3
Ingersoll, R. M. (2003). Why schools have difficulty staffing their classrooms with qualified teachers. Educational Leadership, 60(8), 30-33. Retrieved from

http://www.legis.state.pa.us/cfdocs/legis/tr/transcripts/2013_0167_0001_tstmny.pdf

Source 4
Kolbe, T., & Strunk, K. O. (2012). Economic incentives as a strategy for responding to teacher staffing problems: A typology of policies and practices. Educational Administration Quarterly, 48(5), 779.

Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1173330970?accountid=4117 doi: 10.1177/0013161X12441011

1.2.3. Appropriateness

Saying that a source is appropriate may imply two different things:

i) The source affords information that a particular audience may be inclined to accept and find as credible. For instance, scientists have preference for information that is supported by data and use specialized terminology to express complex concepts. On the other hand, personal experience and touching stories will be more appealing to the general audience.

ii) The source successfully achieves a specific purpose with the audience. For instance, a source may successfully persuade the readers but fail to entertain them.

In any case, the question of whether a source is appropriate or not is related to the audience you have in mind when you write. Effective writers always think of their audience at every step of the writing process. This means that when you select your sources you also need to consider your audience. Who are your potential readers? Do you want to inform these readers, persuade them of your point of view, or tell a story to make a point? You need to answer these questions when you are selecting your sources.
Let us now consider whether Source 1 is appropriate for prompt c:

c. Summarize at least three different scholarly articles that address the problem of the shortage of teachers in England. Make sure you clearly state the purpose of each study, the method used, and the results obtained in each case. Take into account that you will have to present your summaries to a committee of professors in your Department who are experts on the topic.

This writing assignment expects students to summarize three scholarly articles (meaning they are written by a group of specialists in the corresponding academic field). First of all, The Guardian is not a scholarly journal (to know what sort of publication scholarly journals are, you can follow thislink). So, even though the topic discussed in Source 1 is related to that of the prompt (this means that the source is relevant), Source 1 is not the type of source required by the prompt. Why is this so?

First of all, your audience is a group of professors in your department, who are experts in the field. As such, this audience expects highly reliable material, usually written by experts in their same field. That is the reason why the prompt specifically asks you to use only scholarly journal articles.

Therefore, for a source to be appropriate, it should contain information that may be considered acceptable for the standards of your audience and contributes to the purpose of your writing piece.

Exercise 3
With a group of two or more colleagues, consider the following two sources:

Source 2

Source 5

Fulbeck, E. S. (2014). Teacher Mobility and Financial Incentives: A Descriptive Analysis of Denver’s
ProComp. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36(1), 67-82. doi: 10.3102/0162373713503185

Teachers have it easy: The big sacrifices and small salaries of America’s teachers. (2005). Education
Week, 24(39), 38. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/202705483?

accountid=4117

Source 2 is about the relationship between teacher mobility and salary change. It is from a peer-reviewed journal. Source 5 is about the imbalance between teachers’ efforts in work and their low pay. It is from a trade journal Education Week.

With this information in mind, do the following two tasks.

a. At first sight, make a guess about which one is more reliable than the other.
[Hint: Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis is a scholarly journal. Education Week is a trade journal.]

b. Consider the following situations and decide whether the sources are appropriate for the intended audiences, assuming that both sources are relevant and reliable.

Occasions

Your role

Your writing preparation

Your point of view

Your audience

Appropriate or not?

Source A    B

A national conference on education policy

A presenter from a reputable university in the U.S.

You are writing a paper for the conference and you are considering using this source in the literature review.

You claim that decreasing teachers’ salary will result in lower education quality.

Professionals and experts in the field

A course paper for Leadership in Education

You are a student in the class.

Term paper

The thesis statement in your paper is that budget cut on local education will lead to lower teaching quality.

The instructor of the class

“Student Association Day” on campus

You are the Public Relation representative

A brochure

This is an annual event to publicize your club. You want to showcase your association’s advocacy service in favor of the cause of local teachers.

Students across all majors on campus

1.3. Follow up activities

Activity 1

Suppose you are writing a class paper on comparing eastern and western beauty standards. What do you think of the following two sources? Compare them considering relevance, reliability and appropriateness.

Source 6

Asian Beauty Secrets. (2013) Ideal Girl: Beauty Standards in China vs. the West [online video clip].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GH1mSjge9M

Source 7

Rosenfeld, L. B., Stewart, S. C., Stinnett, H. J., & Jackson, L. A. (1999). Preferences for body type
and body characteristics associated with attractive and unattractive bodies: Jackson and

McGill revisited. Perceptual and motor skills, 89(2), 459-470.

After this exercise, you will feel that the dimensions of reliability and appropriateness of a source are interrelated or even interdependent.

Activity 2

- Pair work: Make a list of questions that could be useful to ask when you need to decide if a source is relevant, reliable, and appropriate or not. You may use the following chart to refine your questions and explain why you believe these questions are important.

Questions I should ask

Why should I ask this?

1.

1.

2.

2.

3.

3.

4.

4.

5.

5.

- Share your list of questions with your classmates and compare it to the list provided at the end of this chapter (1.4 Questions you should ask to assess a source).

- Refine your questions and test them to assess the following sources. You can search for the document using one of the databases available in your Library (Hint: Proquest Research Library can be one of them):

Source 8
Pullen, C. (2007). Complete client satisfaction. Journal of Financial Planning, 20(6), 42-44.Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/217546867?accountid=4117

To know more about the material available on the Proquest Research Library click on this link.

Activity 3

Individual task: The following sources were used by students like you in previous semesters. Evaluate how reliable these sources are using the criteria that you defined during the lesson. Based on your analysis, write a short evaluation of each source in a well-developed paragraph. Clearly explain the weaknesses and strengths of each source.

Sources

Evaluation

(9) Barak Obama transformed into 20-foot tall-monster president. (2016, March 3). The
Onion. Retrieved from: http://www.theonion.com/article/obama-transformed-20-foot-

tall-monster-president-a-52471

(10) Jones, G. (2008). Blonde and blue‐eyed? Globalizing beauty, c. 1945–c. 19801. The
Economic History Review, 61(1), 125-154. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2007.00388.x

(11) Monks, K. (2014 May, 29). Bone conduction: Get used to the voices in your head [CNN
News]. Retrieved from: http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/29/tech/innovation/bone-

conduction-get-used/

(12) DoSomething.org (n.d.). Eleven facts about teens and self-esteem [Blog and online
community]. Retrieved from https://www.dosomething.org/us/facts/11-facts-about-

teens-and-self-esteem

Note for source 9: Some online news website are serious, some are not. Among those that are not, the Onion is a typical one. It is a spoof site, even though it takes broadcasting news as one of its missions.

Activity 4

Group work:

Suppose you are writing an article comparing beauty standards in different regions around the world, and the following seven sources are among your list of possible sources. Please rank the reliability of them from 10 to 0 (10= highly reliable and 0= totally unreliable). Justify your answers.

(13) Rosenfeld, L. B., Stewart, S. C., Stinnett, H. J., & Jackson, L. A. (1999). Preferences for body type and body characteristics associated with attractive and unattractive bodies: Jackson and McGill revisited. Perceptual and motor skills, 89(2), 459-470.

(14) Asian Beauty Secrets. (2013) Ideal Girl: Beauty Standards in China vs. the West [online video clip]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GH1mSjge9M

(15) Vagianos, A. (2015, August 14). What the ‘Ideal’ Woman’s Body Looks Like In 18 Countries. The Huffington Post, Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/what-the-ideal-womans-body-looks-like-in-18-countries_55ccd2a6e4b064d5910ac3b0

(16) H. Smith. (2013, September 11). Chinese Beauty Standards. Retrieved from http://crockerymockery.blogspot.com/2013/06/chinese-beauty-standards.html

(17) Barnett, H. L., Keel, P. K., & Conoscenti, L. M. (2001). Body type preferences in Asian and Caucasian college students. Sex Roles, 45(11-12), 867-878.
(18) Zhang, M. (2013). Beauty pageants in neoliberal china: A feminist media study of feminine beauty and chinese culture. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1520247484?accountid=4117

(19) Physical attractiveness. (2015, October 15). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on October 15, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physical_attractiveness&oldid=685815248

Activity 5

How is Source 8 (Pullen, 2007) different from other sources that you have evaluated in this lesson? What type of document is this one? Look at the screen shot directly taken from Proquest Research Library database on the following page. Look at the list of source types on the left column. Discuss the different types with your classmates and your instructor:

Go to the end of this lesson and read the text “Things you should know about the different types of sources that you can find in ProQuest database”. Based on this information, discuss the different degrees of relevance, reliability, and appropriateness of the sources available in the library. Consider also some internet sources such as blogs and the Wikipedia. How reliable are these sources? Why?

1.4. Questions you should ask to assess a source

Questions you should ask

Why should you ask this?

1. Who is the author of this text?

1. A reliable source should clearly state who (person or organization) is responsible for the claims made in the text.

2. What is the author(s)’ background?

2. Is/are the author(s) of this text experts on the topic? What authority do they have to make claims on this topic?

3. When was this text published?

3. Knowing the date will allow you to say if the information is recent or outdated.

4. What organization do/does the author(s) belong to?

4. If the organization that issues the document is a serious and respected/reputable one for the specific topic, such as a scientific journal, or a well-known university, you may feel more inclined to trust in the source.

5. Was the document submitted to a peer-review process?

5. Some documents are first submitted to a group of experts before they are actually published online. Such is the case of scientific journals, which makes these publications more reliable.

6. Is there any possible conflict of interest?

6. If the document presents evidence that supports the commercial interest of the organization that issues the document, you may feel inclined to question the claims made in the text. For instance, for decades cigarette companies claimed that nicotine did not cause cancer and published some documents to support their claims. Now we know that they were in the wrong but kept supporting the idea because of their commercial interest.

21

Newspapers as a Source: Types, Sections, and Objectivity

Newspapers as a Source: Types, Sections, and Objectivity

Alys Avalos-Rivera

A newspaper is a publication that is periodically published (daily or weekly) that presents news and informative articles. In the past, newspapers were only published on paper, usually of the cheapest quality possible to make them affordable to the public and profitable for the publisher as well. Nowadays you can still find newspapers in their traditional form (paper based) or online.

2.1. Types of newspapers

Newspapers can be classified in different ways depending on their format, the type of news they cover, and their periodicity. One classification scheme divides this type of publications into two large groups: broadsheets and tabloids. Initially this classification was only based on the size of the pages. A tabloid is usually half the size of a broadsheet. However, with time, tabloids became associated with sensationalist news that present biased (or sometimes even false) information written in a style meant to scandalize happenings so as to catch readers’ attention. In contrast, broadsheets are usually considered as serious publications that strive to present news in an objective manner. A second classification scheme is based on the coverage of the news published in the newspaper. Although most newspapers would usually contain news of the most relevant international and national events, some newspapers have a special focus on either regional or local news. For this reason, these types of newspaper are only sold in a specific town or region. On the other hand, national newspapers cover news of national and international interest and are sold all over a country. The last classification deals with how often the newspaper is published, which could be daily, three times or twice a week (biweekly or triweekly), once a week (weekly), or even once a month (monthly). Those newspapers that are published on a monthly or weekly basis sometimes focus on specialized news such as sports, arts, business, or news of local interest [click here to go back to reliability].

2.2. Newspaper sections
The article “Golden handcuffs for teachers won’t solve the staffing crisis in our schools” was published in The Guardian, a well-reputed British newspaper. Follow the hotlink provided in the reference entry to visit the article’s webpage. Once you are there, pay attention to the following details:

- On the left of the article’s title, you will notice a couple of subtitles. One of them says “Teachers Shortage” (orange fonts). The second title simply says “Opinion” (gray fonts).

- If you follow these links, you will notice that the first subtitle gives you access to other articles on the same topic which were published in the previous months.

- The “Opinion” link takes you to the section of the same name. What does the word “opinion” mean in this context?

- How does the information in the “Opinion” section (also called “Editorial” section in other newspapers) differ from the information provided in other sections?

In the past, when newspapers were actually just made out of paper, they all had different sections that readers could actually differentiate because they were placed on different pages. These sections were used to present the information classified in categories so that busy readers could only focus on those news they really cared about. For instance, if a reader only wanted to read the sports news, s/he could simply search for the sport page and ignore other sections such as entertainment or classified advertisements. Nowadays, if you want to search for a particular section on an online newspaper you have to look at the hotlinks. These links are usually on a ribbon or link menu placed on one of the margins of the webpage (usually the top or the left margin on Western newspapers).

Knowing the nature of the information that each newspaper section affords is of great importance to evaluate a source taken from a newspaper. The section of “Opinion” on The Guardian’s webpage, for example, is devoted to articles that express the writers’ opinions on a given subject, usually a controversial issue. This means that the journalists do not claim being objective or impartial when they write these pieces. On the contrary, the authors freely present their political views or make value judgement of the situations/events being discussed, which is not usually done in other types of journalism. This does not mean that in the “Opinion” section writers do not present evidence to support their claims. They sometimes but not always do! In most of them, the author(s) voice their point of view and weakly support that without providing adequate evidence. Furthermore, some of these pieces are not confident enough to bring up alternative viewpoints for the audience to have a complete picture and then decide which side to believe. These types of articles are trying to persuade the audience to adopt a particular point of view. By contrast, other sections may have a very different focus. For instance, the “World news” section may only focus on presenting facts while the “Fashion” section may afford more visual material to describe or promote a new trend. To sum up, be cautious before you decide to cite the content in the “Opinion” section of the source.

As an exercise, you can visit a different online newspaper and browse the news provided on each section. Ask yourself the following questions:

- What is the purpose of this piece? To inform? To persuade? To narrate a real story? To sell a product/service? To give advice?

- Does/do the author(s) claim something about a specific topic? If yes, how do they support their claims? With logic/facts/statistics/emotional appeals/visual evidence/experts’ opinions? [Click here to go back to 1.1]

2.3. Objectivity

It was mentioned before that broadsheets usually publish news that are written in an objective manner. This means that the writers do their best to represent the facts as close to the reality as possible, without involving their feelings or opinions in the report. If you consider that writers are human beings with feelings and opinions, and that newspapers are a business whose first objective is to make profits, being objective becomes a complex matter. For this reason, we cannot talk about a piece of news that is absolutely objective and a newspaper that is 100% free from bias. In fact, newspapers usually take a particular political stance (position) that somehow determines how the news, especially the editorial or opinion sections, are presented. Some newspapers are said to have a left, center, or right tendency, depending on the type of political views they hold or political parties they favor. A newspaper’s political stance also determines its audience. This means that, for example, a conservative audience would usually favor a conservative type of newspaper.
As a reader, it is important to be aware of the newspaper’s stance and consider it whenever you read your news. A good principle is not to get your news from a single source. This practice will allow you to see the different points of views about a particular event and decide for yourself, instead of simply following other’s opinions. This is especially important if you are considering using newspaper articles as part of your sources for an assignment. Moreover, you should keep this principle in mind when browsing news on other sources different from newspapers, such as TV, radio broadcasts, or online sources such as Google News, or Yahoo News. They all follow a stance and address an audience with a political point of view [Click here to go back to reliability]

As an exercise, you can observe the following statements about the problem of global warming taken from the websites of two famous TV Networks (You can also click on the hotlinks to read the whole articles). Consider the following questions:

- If you only read the headlines on the Fox News article, what is the idea that you get about the causes of global warming?

- Is that the same idea that you get once you read the content of the article (pay attention to the words that were bolded for your reading convenience)?

- According to the CNN News website, what is causing global warning?

- Do these two articles agree on the causes of global warming? Why is that?

Early man’s actions caused global warming, study says (Fox News)

A new analysis of ice-core climate data, archaeological evidence and ancient pollen samples is being used to suggest farming some 7,000 years ago helped put the brakes on a natural cooling process of the global climate, possibly contributing to the warmer climate seen today.

Your climate change questions answered (CNN News)

Nine in 10 of the scientists said global temperatures are rising and 82% said this rise is because of human activities such as burning fossil fuels and putting more heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere.

To find out more about the editorial line (political stance) of these two sources (Fox News and CNN News) and the political views of their audiences you may check the following article from Business Insider. However, remember that this is again a source may also have a political stance and may be not absolutely reliable.

22

The Case of Wikipedia

The Case of Wikipedia

Alys Avalos-Rivera

The first and foremost criteria for checking the reliability of a source can include the following: a) whether the creator of the source is an expert or professional in that specific field; b) whether the source is reviewed by peer professionals in the same field before it was published.

A practical example for using these criteria is the use of Wikipedia. The reliability of the information published on the Wikipedia varies a great deal. The main reason is that Wikipedia is a web resource collaboratively constructed by writers with various levels of credential and expertise. Both experts and novice can contribute to a topic. What’s worse, any addition or modification is published even before the designated administering team can oversee the content. If a lie appears in Wikipedia, the content will be available on line for a while before the administrators can spot it. There are several anecdotes of this sort of incidents with the Wikipedia. In one of them, a student made up a “famous” quote for a Wikipedia page about the life and works of a famous composer. The student issued it right after the composer died. The spreading rate was so fast that the quote had been cited at a huge amount before the administrators could eliminate the false quote. Details of this story can be found at this news website: http://www.nbcnews.com/id/30699302/ns/technology_and_science-tech_and_gadgets/t/student-hoaxes-worlds-media-wikipedia/#.VtoCS8D2ZMs or you can google this article “Student hoaxes world’s media on Wikipedia”.
In spite of this and other similar cases, the public is still inclined to trust the information in Wikipedia. In fact, many people who are not familiar with one topic will first look something up in Wikipedia. Is this totally wrong? Well, not entirely. Wikipedia sources can be useful when one is not familiar with a certain topic and wants to find out some general introductory information about it. It can be a very nice ice-breaker between the information seekers and the topic. However, its function will end here. If you are planning on writing a scholarly piece of writing or even a paper for a college-level course, you should look for more reliable sources than Wikipedia. Always look for materials that have been subjected to editorial scrutiny before being published. This means that someone else, who are usually colleagues or professionals in the same field, had a close examination on the document before it was published or uploaded. The most reliable sources are usually those that were reviewed by a group of experts on the subject. Therefore, to produce a reliable piece of writing, such as a course paper or a journal article, one had better start from some scholarly journal articles which have been subjected to a process called peer-reviewing. You can learn more about this process in the following link.
[Click here to go back to reliability]

23

Sources in a ProQuest Database

Sources in a ProQuest Database

Alys Avalos-Rivera

4.1. Scholarly Journals

The articles that you can find in a scholarly journal may be research reports, essays, or book reviews. These texts are usually written by experts and addressed to experts in the same field (e.g. scientists and university professors). Therefore the language may be highly specialized or technical. Some scholarly journals are regarded as highly reliable sources not only because they are written by experts, but because their content is submitted to a peer-review process. This means that a group of experts in the field read the article before it is authorized to be published in the journal. In this process, the peer-reviewers provide pertinent feedback so that the author(s) can make any necessary changes to ensure the quality of the publication. If you want to make sure that your search in ProQuest renders only peer-reviewed journals, you need to check the corresponding box before you click on search (see picture below). All scholarly journals always provide detailed references at the end of the article so that the readers will be able to locate the sources used by the author and read these sources directly if they desire to do so [click here to go back to appropriate].

4.2. Trade Journals

A trade journal is usually addressed to practitioners in a given profession. For this reason, the topics in this sort of publications are usually related to practical matters within a specific type of work or occupation. You will not find state of the art research reports in this type of journal. Moreover, some trade journals are peer-reviewed by experts, but that is not the norm. In most cases, the articles only go under the scrutiny of an editor. This means that someone who works for the journal, usually a professional writer, helps the author refine details such as grammar, spelling, and other formatting details before the article is published. Trade journal articles sometimes provide lists of references, but these lists tend to be rather short.

4.3. Magazines

Magazines can vary in topic but the contents are usually addressed to a non-professional/non-expert type of audience. Therefore, the articles are not too specialized and may only be of interest to those who do not know much about a specific topic. A magazine article is usually edited, but not peer-reviewed. In some cases, magazine articles may present more in-depth information about a topic as opposed to a newspaper article. Usually, magazine articles can be longer and the authors have more time to work on their articles. As for their sources, magazine articles may only mention the name of the person who provided the information, or say that a certain fact was proved by a recent study. However, the details of the sources used are not always provided. Finally, you should also remember that just as there are different types of newspapers, there are also different types of magazines written for different audiences and with diverse degrees of reliability and levels of specialization.

4.4. Newspapers
Newspaper articles may be written by journalists who are not experts on a topic but have the necessary skills to do some secondary research on the topic and report the information they find. Since newspaper writers are pressed by time to publish on a daily or weekly basis, they have less time to refine their work and verify their claims than magazine writers. Additionally, as in the case of magazine writers, newspaper writers do not always provide clear references for their sources. In the best cases, the writers of online newspaper articles provide hotlinks to their references, but that is not always the case.
[Click here to go back to Activity 3]

24

Answer Key

Answer Key

Alys Avalos-Rivera

Follow-up Activities

For 1.3 Activity 1:

Source

Relevance

Reliability

Appropriateness

6

It is relevant to the topic.

This is a Youtube video issued by “Asian Beauty Secrets”. The talk features three Asian or at least Asian-heritage young people discussing about how beauty standard in the U.S. and in China differ. They are not experts on this topic. They might have done some research about this topic but you can tell the research is not in-depth since they can only talk about factual details. What they say might be or might not be completely correct. The best is to use the information from this video as a starting thread and key word search for more serious sources.

This video seems to be less formal than materials in print for information referencing purpose. It might not be highly suitable for being presented to a class instructor. Unless no other more serious sources can be found on this topic, this source is not among the best types that one would use to present cultural information to a course instructor. Regarding the purpose of this assignment, this source does contribute to the comparing and contrasting goal by showcasing the cultural facts or opinions.

7

Relevant.

This journal article is authored by a group of authors, who are experts in using scientific research method in looking into people’s perception on beauty standard.

This scholarly article can present relatively reliable information or reasoning to the audience, specifically the course instructor in this case.

VII

Writing Summaries (Descriptive and Evaluative)

Writing Summaries (Descriptive & Evaluative)
Ho’omana Nathan Horton and Paul Sims

Contents
1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………..1
2. Reading and understanding texts …………………………………….1

2.1. Reading the text and getting started ……………………… 1

2.2. Strategies for successful reading …………………………… 2
3. The purpose of summaries ……………………………………………….2
4. Types of summary ……………………………………………………………..3

4.1. When are these used? ……………………………………………… 3

4.2. Connecting audience and purpose ………………………… 3
5. The moves of writing summaries …………………………………….4

5.1. Organization ……………………………………………………………. 4

5.2. Including detail ………………………………………………………. 4

5.3. Language moves …………………………………………………….. 4
6. Avoiding plagiarism when writing summaries ………………5

6.1. When could plagiarism occur in a summary? ………. 5

6.2. When do we need to cite in a summary? ……………… 5
7. Exercises and resources ……………………………………………………5

25

Introduction

Introduction

Ho'omana Nathan Horton and Paul Sims

1. Introduction
Throughout your academic career, it is very likely that you will be asked to write a summary. This is related to, but more extensive than the summarizing discussed in the last chapter about how to incorporate outside material. Much like the summarizing described in the last chapter, a summary provides a shorter version of a text. However, while summarizing a text to support your own writing is typically only a few sentences, a summary is a standalone document which gives the reader a brief version of the original text. This may seem simple, but the way that you write a summary of a text depends on the purpose for writing the summary. In the following chapter, we will discuss the following elements of writing a successful summary:
● Reading and understanding texts
● The purpose of writing summaries
● The different types of summaries
● The moves of writing summaries
● Avoiding plagiarism when writing summaries

26

Reading and Understanding Texts

Reading and Understanding Texts

Ho'omana Nathan Horton and Paul Sims

2. Reading and understanding texts

2.1. Reading the text and getting started
When writing a summary, one very common tendency is to focus too much on only one or two points or details of the text and fail to provide the reader with an overall view of the entire text. It may help to think of a summary as a shrunken version of the original text. To help visualize this, imagine that the source text is a t-shirt with a pattern

covering the entire shirt. If you want to make the shirt smaller but still show the pattern, you cannot simply cut off the sleeves or the bottom half of the shirt and put them together. You must shrink the entire shirt and keep everything the way that you found it. As you write your summary, keep this image in mind, and as you revise, make sure that you can see the overall image of the original text.

As mentioned above, one important purpose of a summary is to help you understand the text, and in some cases, show others that you understand the text. Therefore, it is essential that you read the text thoroughly at least twice in order to develop a basic understanding of the ideas. Below are some tips for reading a text which you will be summarizing:

- Annotate as you read. It is extremely helpful when reading to annotate the text (highlight, underline, make notes). These notes will help you to understand the text as you read it again, and will also help you keep track of important ideas.

- Find the thesis. Remember that in your own writing, there is an underlying thesis, the main point (or points) of the text, which holds everything together, and all of the details and support in the text should point to and support this thesis. The same is true of most writing that you will read, so finding the thesis first will be greatly helpful as you attempt to understand and summarize the text.

- Pay close attention to headings and subheadings. Most academic articles (and even many news articles, especially online) have headings and subheadings. These will help you to understand the material, but will also help you when determining how you will organize your summary and which details you will include. As you read, pay attention to the headings and subheadings and consider how each section contributes to the overall thesis of the text.

2.2. Strategies for successful reading

Although the tips above may help you understand how to read and understand a text generally, readers often get stuck at the paragraph or sentence level. Sometimes you may have difficulty understanding new terminology. If you’re reading something from a new, unfamiliar discipline, you may have a hard time understanding a text without having background information. Sometimes, you may just get bored while reading. Below, we offer some specific strategies to help you stay on track while reading and understand texts at the sentence, paragraph, and whole-text level. If you’re having trouble reading, stop, take a deep breath, and try some of the strategies below to get a better grasp on what the author is trying to express.

- Skimming: Quickly look through the headings and subheadings: See if you can figure out what the author is trying to say; in other words, what his or her point is. Look for words related to headings and subheadings in the text.

- Framing: Read the first sentence of a paragraph, then go the bottom of the paragraph. Ask yourself: Are you having difficulty understanding how the author got to the final sentence? If so, go back through the paragraph and read the rest of it, looking for the same or similar words from the initial and last sentences.

- Scanning: If you are looking for a particular word, identify that word and search the printed text using your index finger, or with digital text, by scrolling and looking for it with your eyes.

- Referencing: Keep a dictionary on hand, especially when you are reading what you find to be a difficult text or it is in a discipline that is unfamiliar to you. Your dictionary can either be digital or print.

27

The purpose of summaries

The Purpose of Summaries

Ho'omana Nathan Horton and Paul Sims

3. The purpose of summaries

When a writer sees “summary” as part of his or her instructions on how to write something, this can fill the writer with dread. The writer’s mind might begin to seem backlogged with questions, such as What is a summary?, Why do I need to do this?, What if I leave out something important?, and What if I plagiarize and don’t even realize it?

With the appropriate level of understanding and preparation, a writer needing to develop a summary can be better able to face such a task with greater confidence and skill.

What are some reasons why someone might want to summarize something?

- Improve understanding (current self). When you summarize something, you are engaging a thought process which grants you the opportunity to internalize the subject undergoing summary and produce a work which helps you put the concepts into a shape which you can more readily comprehend because you did the work to make sense of it.

- Create a concise version for future reference (future self). Especially when conducting research on a topic, you might not be able to keep every resource you need on hand at all times. An example of something like this is an annotated bibliography. Also, you may want to keep a record of sorts of the kinds of resources you’ll need for different research topics and directions. A summary for future reference can help you at some future point when you need to analyze a source for usefulness.

- Show someone or some number of other people that you understand (others). There are times when you will need to demonstrate your ability to comprehend and communicate others’ ideas, such as in a complex research paper or when showing an instructor what you learned from different readings. How will each of these audiences affect the way that you write your summary? Audience is a paramount consideration in how one chooses to approach the development of a piece of writing. So, how do you go about dealing with the different audiences within these reasons we’ve mentioned: current self, future self, and others?

28

Types of Summary

Types of Summary

Ho'omana Nathan Horton and Paul Sims

- 4. Types of summary

There are two primary types of summary: Descriptive and evaluative. As with many types of writing, not all summaries will fit perfectly into one of these categories, but these descriptions can help you know where to start when writing a summary.

- Descriptive: A descriptive summary is very much rooted in expressing facts. It focuses on the essence of the item under review, sharing the main point and any important, supporting details. The writer’s opinion is rarely found in a descriptive summary. It is a concise description of the work, which means the writer uses as a few words as possible to convey the essential elements of the item being summarized.

- Evaluative: Just like the word “evaluative” suggests, this type of summary requires the writer to evaluate the item being summarized. This classification of summary is opinion-heavy. While a few basic facts about the piece are required, such as the author and the title and the main point of the piece, the remainder consists of the summary writer’s viewpoints of the work. The author will detail his or her perception of the work in such areas as intended audience and purpose and how well these are addressed in the work. The person evaluating the item will also look at how this item will be useful to him or her and examine where it falls short. Because the types and frequency of examination found in the evaluative summary may involve extensive explanation, it will very likely be longer than the typical descriptive summary.

4.1. When are these used?

- Descriptive: A writer uses a descriptive summary when he or she wants to gain and express an understanding of what the author said in the original text.

- Evaluative: A writer will choose this summary type when he or she wants to examine the original text for usefulness, validity, strength of argument, or other important elements.

4.2. Connecting audience and purpose

- More often than not, descriptive summaries will be used with two of the three intended audiences mentioned above – current self and others. The descriptive summary will help a writer process the main and supporting ideas in the works.

- However, an evaluative summary could address current self, future self, and others, depending on why you might be writing the summary. If you are trying to work on a project in at a given moment which requires source analysis, then an evaluative summary might be the best way to go. When considering your future self and how to write a summary, an evaluative summary written early on may help you save time when you are in the middle of finishing a project later. And, if you are making a recommendation to others as to whether they should use the source, an evaluative summary might be your best choice.

As you become familiar with how to write summaries and how to think about audience, you will likely be better able to make such decisions by yourself. Note that both types of summaries will be in the summary writer’s own words as much as possible to avoid the suggestion of plagiarism, which we will discuss later in this chapter.

29

The Moves of Writing Summaries

The Moves of Writing Summaries

Ho'omana Nathan Horton and Paul Sims

5. The moves of writing summaries

Now that we have discussed the two basic types of summary (descriptive and evaluative) and some possible reasons you might use either one, we will give a few practical tips for writing summaries, including how to organize your summary, which details you should include from the original text, and a few grammar points that can be tricky.

5.1. Organization

The organization of a summary will almost always follow the overall organization of the original text. Remember that in a descriptive summary, your goal is to convey the same information as the original text in a more concise manner. However, there may be some exceptions to this, especially when writing evaluative summaries. While it is still essential to express the main points of the text, you may want to highlight some strengths or flaws in the text through your organization.

5.2. Including details

One of the most common difficulties students have when writing summaries is deciding which details and information to include. A summary, whether descriptive or evaluative, should portray the overall meaning of the text (remember our metaphor about shrinking a t-shirt), but it can be difficult to balance showing the full picture with providing unnecessary details. Here are a few tips for deciding which details to include:

- Include one or two examples at most for each main idea presented in the body of your summary. Remember that in a descriptive summary especially, your objective is to give a general idea of what the text was about, so avoid including too many details. When writing an evaluative summary, it may be appropriate to give more details or examples when examining one particular idea in the text.

- When writing, and especially when revising, consider whether the examples or details that you include are necessary to explain or support the main ideas of the text. Will your reader be able to understand the thesis and main points of the text without the detail or example?

- Unless you are providing specific details (numbers, important quotes, etc.), express details and examples in your own words by paraphrasing. Many writers fall into the trap of simply copying and pasting information from the original text. Even if the quotation is properly cited (we’ll discuss how to do this more below), too many direct quotations cause the summary to simply be a patchwork of the original text rather than a concise summary in your own words which still shows the overall image and main point of the text.

5.3. Language moves

There are a few important grammatical features that are common to summaries which may seem minor or unimportant, but can actually have a significant effect on the meaning of your writing.

Let’s begin by reading the following very brief summary. Focus especially on the verbs, how and when they are used, and their tense. Take notes of the things you notice.

In the essay “Making the Grade,” Kurt Weisenfeld, a professor of Physics at Georgia Tech University, argues that there has been a discernible decline in his students’ work ethic over the last generation. Based on his own personal interactions with his students, he observed that many of his students failed to see the connection between their final grades and their own personal hard work (or lack thereof). Rather, they seemed to feel they are simply entitled to the grades they want. Weisenfeld theorizes that their indifference towards learning is the result of a society saturated with superficial values and the “erosion of quality control” for grades in the public education system (e.g. giving out grades that were not really earned). Because most of his students are science and engineering majors, he fears that their poor work ethic and “hyperrational thinking” could potentially result in costly or harmful engineering accidents.

There are two prominent features in this summary which are important for any summary:

1. The author uses verbs that indicate they are summarizing. For example, “Kurt Weisenfeld […] argues that,” “Weisenfeld theorizes that,” and “he fears that.” Generally, when you write a summary, your reader (whether a professor, a colleague, or yourself) will know that you are summarizing from another text. However, it is still important to indicate that you are summarizing because it helps you to ensure that you are summarizing the author’s ideas rather than your own. This is essential when writing an evaluative summary because you must keep the author’s ideas and your evaluation of those ideas separate.

2. The author primarily uses present tense (“argues”, “theorizes”, “fears”), but also uses the past tense (“observed”). Why do you think the author selects these tenses? What difference would it make if the author said “Weisenfeld theorized that…” in line 5? The use of tense when talking about someone else’s work or writing is a challenge for almost all academic writers, regardless of how long they have been writing, and unfortunately there are no hard and fast rules as to which tense should be used when. However, there are some general principles which can help you decide which tense to use:

a. Generally, the present tense is used to describe an idea or argument which an author put forth in the text. It helps
to think of a text as the author talking to you. Although the author finished writing this idea down at some point in the
past, they are still presently making this statement or argument through the text. An exception to this would be if you
know for a fact that the author has since renounced their idea, or no longer believes it.

b. Generally, the past tense is used to describe an event or action that occurs in the text. For example, this is commonly used to talk about the methodology or events that the author used to reach their conclusions or support their
arguments.

c. It is important to note that the use of tense can also indicate the writer’s stance on the idea reported. If the writer
uses present tense, he or she is not questioning the idea, but accepting it as still valid. If the writer uses past tense, he
or she often will go on to show that the idea is no longer valid or that the writer disagrees with it.

30

Avoiding Plagiarism when Writing Summaries

Avoiding Plagiarism when Writing Summaries

Ho'omana Nathan Horton and Paul Sims

6. Avoiding plagiarism when writing summaries

Because a summary is a restatement of someone else’s work, it can be very easy to plagiarize unintentionally. In the section below, we’ll discuss places where it can be especially easy to plagiarize unintentionally, some tips to avoid plagiarism when summarizing, and when we need to cite in a summary.

6.1. When could plagiarism occur in a summary?

Because you are summarizing what someone else has written, it can be easy to commit the plagiarism of words that we discussed in the previous chapter, especially when it comes to describing the details and specifics of an author’s argument or support for that argument. Many writers may incorrectly believe that because the reader typically knows that a summary is taken from someone else’s text, it is unnecessary to quote or cite words that are directly taken. However, just like with any other use of outside material, you must always give credit for directly copied words. In addition, the use of verbs which indicate that you are summarizing from another text will help you to keep your retelling of the author’s ideas separate from your own interpretation or evaluation of those ideas, especially in an evaluative summary. Although the previous chapter gives great detail about how to cite from outside sources, we will review how and when to do this in a summary below.

6.2. When do we need to cite in a summary?

You will recall from the previous chapter that there are two different types of citations: Full reference citations, and in-text citations, both of which are important and used when writing any type of summary. It will help to recall the reasons that we cite at all. First, to give credit to someone else for their work and second, to help our reader find the cited information. Both types of citation perform both of these functions in a summary:

- Again, even though your reader will likely be aware that this is a summary of another text and not necessarily your original ideas, you must include a full reference citation either before or after the summary, depending on your preference or your instructor’s requirement. Some instructors prefer that the reference citation be at the top of the page before the text, and some prefer that it be on a references page at the end. Either way, the inclusion of a reference citation acknowledges that you are describing someone else’s work and gives your reader the ability to find the source easily. When you write a summary for your own research purposes, this can help you create a sort of catalogue so that you can easily go back and find the original source if you need to.

- • In-text citations are mandatory after any direct quotation from the text, or after specific details and information (e.g. numbers, dates, etc.), even if they are not directly quoted. Citing this information directly first helps to separate the author’s direct words from your description of their ideas. It also provides your reader with the ability to easily go back and find the information in the article themselves.

31

Exercises and Resources

Exercises and Resources

Ho'omana Nathan Horton and Paul Sims

7. Exercises and resources

- 7.1. Using about 250 words, reflect on your reading of this chapter and your participation in the above exercises. First, summarize the main points of this chapter. Then, consider and write down what new information you learned. Also, think through and document how this chapter reinforced your previous understanding of summary writing. Finally, consider contexts in which you might need to write a summary. What types of information will you need to include for these audiences. Describe how confident you are in your ability to write a summary now. If you think you need to do or learn something else to gain more confidence, what do you think this is and how do you plan to go about doing it?

VIII

Transitional Devices

In this chapter we analyze the use of two transitional expressions that are frequently used in academic writing, however and although. Transitional expressions/signals are important coherence devices that guide your readers to understand the logic between your ideas. For example, transitional expressions such as also, and, and in addition can help the readers understand your intention to share an additional idea; transitional devices such as in summary, in conclusion, and finally can signify the readers that you are concluding your previously stated ideas. It is very likely that you already understand the meaning of these words. However, you may sometimes hesitate when using them in your writing. Therefore, we expect that a closer observation of the examples provided here will help you improve the way you use transitions in your writing.

32

However as a Transitional Device

However as a Transitional Device

Alys Avalos-Rivera and Yelin Zhao

Activity 1

1.1. The following passages use the word however to connect ideas and express a specific purpose. Read the passages and try to differentiate appropriate and inappropriate uses of however. Discuss with your peers why however has been used inappropriately in each example.

1. Department of Education noted that state and local officials should have the flexibility to determine appropriate content for a student’s summary, which must be based on the student’s individual needs and post secondary goals. However, this flexibility must be balanced with the need to assure that students with disabilities, upon leaving high school, have a comprehensive summary of performance (SOP) that promotes self-determination.
2. One of the greatest advantages of using technology at schools is that students can communicate with people all over the world. However, in contrast there are also some disadvantages.

3. After I finished my first year of college, I decided to move off campus and I saw many differences between living on and off campus. However, there are many differences between living on and off campus that can impact on students’ health, academic performance, and personal comfort.

4. Brazil’s average per capita income had fallen from a peak of 25 percent of the U.S. average in the 1960s to just 16 percent by the late 1990s. In the last decade, however, that number began to climb, and it has now risen to roughly 20 percent.

5. Nowadays most teachers can optimize instruction by using technology in their classes instead of just talking or using the chalkboard. However, digital devices such as the smartphone have become an essential tool for students.

6. It cannot be established with any certainty what happened to the Titanic during its descent to the seabed. However, what is now known is that once the ship disappeared below the ocean’s surface, it broke into three pieces.
7. Nowadays, students spend a great deal of money on textbooks, however, the idea of replacing textbooks with tablets may be a solution to reduce the cost of education.

8. There are many differences between English and Korean, such as their alphabets, grammatical structure, and the use of honorifics. However, it is clear that Korean is harder to learn than English because of its alphabet, grammar, and the use of honorifics.

9. 25 Male participants’ favorite brand of cigarettes remained stable across the 5 telephone surveys (2003-2008); however, female participants’ favorite brand changed dramatically after the Camel No. 9 advertising campaign.

10. Teachers, students, and tutors responded that some student materials could be clearer; however, overall the clarity of those materials was acceptable.

1.2. List the passages in which however has been accurately and appropriately used (You can simply write the numbers of each passage).
Numbers:
1.3. In the following chart list the problematic cases and write down a brief explanation about each problem.

Passage
Number

Possible Reasons

Based on an analysis of 100 student essays, we found that however, the transitional expression is often misused. Therefore, the goal of the following activities is two-fold. First, it aims to raise your awareness of when and how however should be used appropriately in academic writing. Second, these activities challenge you to practice the use of however as a contrastive transitional device.

Activity 2

Read the following sentences in which however has been used appropriately and follow the instructions given below:

1) Sentences 1-5 emphasize one main theme. Identify this theme and circle it.

2) Sentences 6-10 emphasize two themes. Identify and circle them.

3) In all of the sentences, two features are in contrast. Identify and underline these features.

4) Work out a rule as to when however should be used.

Example: The United Arab Emirates’ rapid modernization has brought remarkable advancements in public health. However, modernization also has brought new risks (e.g. an increment in non-infectious conditions such as cancer).

1. Brazil’s average per capita income had fallen from a peak of 25 percent of the U.S. average in the 1960s to just 16 percent by the late 1990s. However, in the last decade, Brazil’s average per capita income began to climb, and it has now risen to roughly 20 percent.
2. Department of Education noted that state and local officials should have the flexibility to determine appropriate content for a student’s summary, which must be based on the student’s individual needs and postsecondary goals. However, this flexibility must be balanced with the need to assure that students with disabilities, upon leaving high school, have a comprehensive summary of performance (SOP) that promotes self-determination and productive post school outcomes.

3. Since 2001, student attendance failed to meet the state’s requirements during testing days; However, in 2005, attendance on test days allowed the school to meet the annual attendance objectives as defined by the state.

4. For the acceptability of online tutoring procedures, teachers and tutors all reported that the set-up was easy. Teachers, students, and tutors responded that some student materials could be clearer; However, overall the clarity of those materials was acceptable.

5. An important increase in contaminant substances was found in Lake Ontario fish. PCNs have shown a dramatic decline since 1979; However, the levels are still above Ontario’s fish consumption advisory guidelines for dioxin-like compounds.

6. The poet Montoro witnessed some of the worst racial violence of his time and was forced to feel from his home in Cordoba (in 1473) during a riot. His poem to Enrique IV voices the frustration of a citizen who had lost hope that the persecution would end. However, his poem dedicated to Isabel illustrates that the presence of the new queen had restored in the poet some degree of optimism for the future.
7. Usually, it’s better to take a multivitamin supplement with meals. With an empty stomach, you’ll absorb less of those vitamins. However, taking your multivitamin supplement on an empty stomach is much better than not taking it at all.

8. If students with ID are auditing a class, then they are not receiving official university credit and are not required to submit assignments. However, if students with ID taking the course for credit, then those students must attempt to master all of the material which other students are expected to learn and submit all assignments as required in the syllabus.

9. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the forced relocation of thousands of Indian families from the Southeast to what is now Oklahoma. However, the growth and expansion of the white population has intensified the demand for Indian lands in most areas.

10. Most items in the questionnaire represent statements to which the students responded to on a four-point modified Likert scale ranging from strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree. However, in the last three items, students were requested to give open answers.

Rules to use however
In the academic writing context, however is often used as a transitional device in the following two ways:

1) to contrast two features/variables/attributes of one theme

2) to contrast two features/variables/attributes of two themes that belong to the same category

Activity 3

Read examples 1-10 in activity 2 again.

1) Circle the punctuation marks used before and after however.

2) Compare the different uses of punctuation before and after however between examples 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and examples 3, 4, 5.

Language usage notes

However is used as a coordinating conjunction to connect two independent clauses. Very often, a period, a punctuation mark to indicate the end of the first independent clause, is placed before However. In this case, the h in however should be capitalized, and a comma should be used after However (see examples 1 to 6).
As shown in examples 7-10, a semi-colon can also be used before however to connect two main clauses in a single sentence. In this case, the h in however should not be capitalized, and a comma should be used after however. Compared to a period, a semi-colon is preferred if the two clauses are short.

33

Transitions: Answerkey

Transitions: Answerkey

Alys Avalos-Rivera and Yelin Zhao

Activity 1

1.2. In the following box, list the passages in which ‘however’ has been accurately and appropriately used.

Passages

1

Department of Education noted that state and local officials should have the flexibility to determine appropriate content for a student’s summary, which must be based on the student’s individual needs and postsecondary goals. However, this flexibility must be balanced with the need to assure that students with disabilities, upon leaving high school, have a comprehensive summary of performance (SOP) that promotes self-determination.

4

Brazil’s average per capita income had fallen from a peak of 25 percent of the U.S. average in the 1960s to just 16 percent by the late 1990s. In the last decade, however, that number began to climb, and it has now risen to roughly 20 percent.

6

It cannot be established with any certainty what happened to the Titanic during its descent to the seabed. However, what is now known is that once the ship disappeared below the ocean’s surface, it broke into three pieces.

9

25 Male participants’ favorite brand of cigarettes remained stable across the 5 telephone surveys (2003-2008); however, female participants’ favorite brand changed dramatically after the Camel No. 9 advertising campaign.

10

Teachers, students, and tutors responded that some student materials could be clearer; however, overall the clarity of those materials was acceptable.

1.3 In the following chart list the problematic cases and write down a brief explanation about the problem.

Problematic Passages

Problem

2

One of the greatest advantages of using technology at schools is that students can communicate with people all over the world. However, in contrast there are also some disadvantages.

The writer is using two transitional devices “however” and “in contrast” to compare two attributes of “using technology.” Only one transition word is necessary in this passage.

3

After I finished my first year of college, I decided to move off campus and I saw many differences between living on and off campus. However, there are many differences between living on and off campus that can impact on students’ health, academic performance, and personal comfort.

The writer is not presenting a contrast but adding information about the “many differences” of living in and off campus.

5

Nowadays most teachers can optimize instruction by using technology in their classes instead of just talking or using the chalkboard. However, digital devices such as the smartphone have become an essential tool for students.

“Optimize instruction” and “become essential” are not set in comparison with one another, but as different examples of how technology is used by teachers and students.

7

Nowadays, students spend a great deal of money on textbooks, however, the idea of replacing textbooks with tablets may be a solution to reduce the cost of education.

Wrong punctuation

8

There are many differences between English and Korean, such as their alphabets, grammatical structure, and the use of honorifics. However, it is clear that Korean is harder to learn than English because of its alphabet, grammar, and the use of honorifics.

In the first sentence the writer establishes that A is different from B because of several reasons and mentions three of these differences as an example. The use of however in the second sentence announces a contrast. As such, one would expect that the writer would enlist some similarities between A and B (in spite of the differences previously mentioned), but that does not occur.

Activity 2

Read the following sentences in which however has been used appropriately and follow the instructions given below:

1) Sentences 1-5 emphasize one main theme. Identify this theme and circle it.
2) Sentences 6-10 emphasize two themes. Identify and circle them.
3) In all of the sentences, two features are in contrast. Identify and underline these features.
4) Work out a rule as to when however should be used.

1. Most items in the questionnaire represent statements to which the students responded to on a four-point modified Likert scale ranging from strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree. However, in the last three items, students were requested to give open answers.

Theme 1: Most items
Theme 2: The last three items
Contrast: Likert scale vs. open answers

2. Brazil’s average per capita income had fallen from a peak of 25 percent of the U.S. average in the 1960s to just 16 percent by the late 1990s. However, in the last decade, Brazil’s average per capita income began to climb, and it has now risen to roughly 20 percent.

One theme: Brazil’s average per capital income
Contrast: decrease vs. increase

3. Department of Education noted that state and local officials should have the flexibility to determine appropriate content for a student’s summary, which must be based on the student’s individual needs and postsecondary goals. However, this flexibility must be balanced with the need to assure that students with disabilities, upon leaving high school, have a comprehensive summary of performance (SOP) that promotes self-determination and productive postschool outcomes.

One theme: flexibility
Contrast: necessity vs. restriction

4. Since 2001, student attendance failed to meet the state’s requirements during testing days; however, in 2005, attendance on test days allowed the school to meet the annual attendance objectives as defined by the state.

One theme: student attendance during testing days
Contrast: failure to meet the requirement since 2001 vs. success in meeting requirement in 2005

5. For the acceptability of online tutoring procedures, teachers and tutors all reported that the set-up was easy. Teachers, students, and tutors responded that some student materials could be clearer; however, overall the clarity of those materials was acceptable.

One theme: student materials
Contrast: imperfect vs. acceptable

6. An important increase in contaminant substances was found in Lake Ontario fish. PCNs have shown a dramatic decline since 1979; however, the levels are still above Ontario’s fish consumption advisory guidelines for dioxin-like compounds.

One theme: the levels of PCNs
Contrast: improvement vs. failure to meet the standard

7. The poet Montoro witnessed some of the worst racial violence of his time and was forced to feel from his home in Cordoba (in 1473) during a riot. His poem to Enrique IV voices the frustration of a citizen who had lost hope that the persecution would end. However, his poem dedicated to Isabel illustrates that the presence of the new queen had restored in the poet some degree of optimism for the future.

Theme 1: His poem to Enrique IV
Theme 2: His poem to Isabel
Contrast: frustration vs. optimism

8. Usually, it’s better to take a multivitamin supplement with meals. With an empty stomach, you’ll absorb less of those vitamins. However, taking your multivitamin supplement on an empty stomach is much better than not taking it at all.

Theme 1: Taking a multivitamin supplement with an empty stomach
Theme 2: Not taking a multivitamin supplement at all
Contrast: bad (absorb less of vitamins) vs. worse

9. If students with ID are auditing a class, then they are not receiving official university credit and are not required to submit assignments. However, if students with ID taking the course for credit, then those students must attempt to master all of the material which other students are expected to learn and submit all assignments as required in the syllabus.

Theme 1: Students who audit a class
Theme 2: Students who take a class for credits
Contrast: Responsibilities of auditing a class vs. those of taking a class for credits

10. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the forced relocation of thousands of Indian families from the Southeast to what is now Oklahoma. However, the growth and expansion of the white population has intensified the demand for Indian lands in most areas.

Theme 1: Relocation of the Native American population to Oklahoma
Theme 2: Growth of the white population
Contrast: being pushed away from ones’ land vs. demanding other people’s land

Major findings from my research project:

Contrastive function:
Compares two aspects, X and Y, of one theme, A. X and Y are strikingly different or even opposite. n=21

Concessive function:
The however clause contains information that is contrary to the assumption that has been clearly stated/can be easily drawn from the prior text or the shared frame. n=9

Information prominence:
Ideas expressed/indicated in the however clause carry more importance, are representative of the writer’s focal point/central argument, and are elaborated in the following discourse. n=27

Information structure:
The most commonly occurring element in the subject position of the however clause is given information, and the majority of the element is Textually Evoked. n=23

In our chapter, we addressed its contrastive function, but we didn’t talk about the concessive function. Information prominence and information structure relevant issues need to be discussed as well.
Contrastive:
Compare two aspects (e.g. attributes/states/views), which I call X and Y, of one theme A, and the two aspects are often different from one another or even opposite.

34

Although As a Transitional Device

Although As a Transitional Device

Alys Avalos-Rivera and Yelin Zhao

Based on the analysis of the uses of however in the previous section, we have learned that this transitional word is used to contrast features of one or two themes. In this section, we proceed to discuss another transitional device (i.e. although) that also serves the contrastive function. In fact, some students even view however and although as synonyms and think they can be used interchangeably. This false assumption leads to some inappropriate uses of these two transitional expressions in their writing. Task 1 intends to guide you to explore the differences between the uses of however and although.

Activity 1

In the following exercise you will find three passages that contain however and three passages that include although to present contrasts. Read the passages carefully and discuss the following questions with your peers:

1) As you did in Activity 2 in the however chapter, in each of the following passages, first circle the theme(s) and then underline the features that are set in contrast.
2) Within each passage, which sentence (Sentence [1] or [2]) introduces the contrast between features?
3) Where in the passage is the transitional word placed? Sentence [1] or [2]?
4) Using your responses, fill in the chart that appears below.

1. [1] There is a general belief that compared to undergraduate students, graduate students are less likely to violate academic integrity since they are more mature and more educated. [2] Although the belief is prevalent, Brown (1995) reported that, in fact, graduate students are as likely to cheat as their undergraduate counterparts.

2. [1] Badge and Scott (2009) pointed out that little research has been done to examine the impact of plagiarism detection tools on staff teaching practices. [2] Although a number of recent studies have considered educational use of Turnitin, they focused on individual programs or subject areas rather than institutions as a whole and the relationship with policy.

3. [1] Activities which involved another party, such as copying and collaboration amongst students, created considerable diversity of opinion. [2] Although copying from other students was included in most definitions of plagiarism, for some participants from humanities and science, this was considered to be a different kind of cheating.

4. [1]Plagiarism by students is an increasing issue at higher education institutions that require attention. [2] However, the development of academic misconduct policies has done little to reduce the incidence of plagiarism.

5. [1] We intentionally offered students two articles in electronic form, available on the university Web site, and two printed in a journal, expecting that the electronic versions would be plagiarized more. [2] However, no differences in the plagiarism rate between the students who chose the electronic version of the source article or the paper version were actually found.

6. [1] When electronic software tools for the detection of plagiarism first became available, many educators believed that they would provide an easily implemented solution, which would cut down on the hours of tedious manual detection. [2] However, within a short period of time, it became clear that electronic detection software “is not a magic bullet” (Caroll, 2003a) and that it is just one tool among many.

Example No.

Q 1: Themes and Features in Contrast

Q 2: sentence number in which contrasting features are discussed:

Q3: Transition word is in sentence:

1

2

3

4

5

6

Rules to use although
As we have learned in the previous chapter, however is often used as a coordinating conjunction to connect two independent clauses that are of equal importance. In contrast, as shown in examples 1-3, although is used to connect ideas that are within one sentence, so it functions as a subordinating conjunction.

Activity 2

Read the following examples very carefully. Pay attention to the grammar structure and punctuation used in each sentence and complete the following activities:

1. Enclose the first clause of each passage using square brackets: [ ]
2. Underline the second clause: _______________
3. In examples 2 through 5, which of the two clauses carries the central idea of the passage? Why is that so? (Example 1 has been done for you).
4. Which clause is more important in examples 6 through 10?
5. What differences can you find between examples 1-5 and 6-10?

1. [Although professors and classroom teachers are extremely busy with all of their duties], adding components of job searching to teacher preparation will help candidates start their careers.

The second clause (underlined) carries the central meaning of the passage. The writer wants to emphasize why it is important to add a job searching component to teacher education programs.

2. Although many reading specialists would probably argue that reading is the most important skill students need to develop, the need to integrate technology into the school curriculum should not be overlooked.

3. Although I still would like to find a way to increase my brain capacity, my interest has shifted toward student learning and brain development over the past several decades.

4. Although research is less clear about the appropriate test level for academically gifted students, Warne (2014) conducted a study in which gifted students were tested above level with a test that was 2 years more advanced than their grade level.

5. Although the literature is mixed concerning whether online discussion boards are conducive to fostering students’ critical thinking skills, strong evidence suggests it is a learning environment ripe with possibilities for doing so.

6. Learning is fundamental to life itself and we probably internalize from every life situation and experience, although we are not conscious of much of it.

7. No local dengue fever cases were reported in 2013, although cases may have been underreported because of local physicians were not familiar with the disease.

8. Historically, counselors have not been involved in the academic mission of the school (Adelman, 2002; House & Hayes, 2002), although recent research suggests an urgent need for them to be (Adelman, 2002; Clark & Amatea, 2004).

9. Most test-takers managed to complete both choice exercises, although some only answered the first one.

10. All the plants remained alive at the end of seawater treatments, although their vitality was strongly reduced.
As you surely noticed, the sentences in this exercise follow two main patterns:

Although + clause / , / clause
Clause / , / although + clause

In all the examples, the although+clause shows the contrast, while the other clause carries the central idea of the sentence.

Rules to use although

1. The clause that starts with although is a dependent clause, so it carries less important information than the other clause that is an independent clause. Use sentence [2] in passage 1 (Activity 1) as an example: the dependent clause “Although the belief is prevalent” is less important than the independent clause “graduate students are as likely to cheat as their undergraduate counterparts.” In what follows, the writer is very likely to talk about detailed information regarding Brown’s (1995) study instead of how prevalent the previous belief is.

2. Regardless of the order used, you should always use a comma to separate the two clauses.

3. Unlikehowever, although is never followed by a comma.

4. It is also important to point out that since at least one sentence needs to be an independent clause, a sentence starts with “which,” as in the following example is ungrammatical: Although a number of recent studies have considered educational use of Turnitin, which focused on individual programs or subject areas rather than institutions as a whole and the relationship with policy.

5. Additionally, you might have heard, read, or even written a sentence in which the construction “Although xxx, but xxx.” This structure is inappropriate. The reason is that but is unnecessary, and contrast has already been indicated in the word “although.” This error might be due to direct translation from some languages other than English.

35

Transitions: AnswerKey

Transitions: AnswerKey

Alys Avalos-Rivera and Yelin Zhao

Activity 1

Example
No.

Q 1: Themes and Features in Contrast

Q 2: sentence number in which contrasting features are discussed:

Q3: Transition word is in sentence:

1

Cheating:

- General belief: graduate students are less likely to cheat.

- Graduate students are as likely to cheat as their undergraduate counterparts.

2

2

2

Research on Turnitin educational use to control plagiarism:

- In individual programs

- In institutions as a whole

2

2

3

Copying from other students is considered plagiarism.

- Students considered copying as a different kind of cheating.

2

2

4

- Student plagiarism is increasing.

- Policies to control academic misconduct do not do much to prevent it.

1 and 2

2

5

- Students were expected to plagiarize more often from electronic sources than from paper sources.

- Evidence shows no difference in plagiarism rates of the two types of sources.

1 and 2

2

6

Instructors expected that software would solve all their problems detecting plagiarism.

- Software is just a tool among many.

1 and 2

2

Activity 2

1. [Although professors and classroom teachers are extremely busy with all of their duties], adding components of job searching to teacher preparation will help candidates start their careers.

The second clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The writer wants to emphasize why it is important to add a job searching component to teacher education programs.

2. [Although many reading specialists would probably argue that reading is the most important skill students need to develop], the need to integrate technology into the school curriculum should not be overlooked.

The second clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The emphasis is on integrating technology into the school curriclum.

3. [Although I still would like to find a way to increase my brain capacity], my interest has shifted toward student learning and brain development over the past several decades.

The second clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The writer focuses on his/her present interest in student learning and brain development.

4. [Although research is less clear about the appropriate test level for academically gifted students], Warne (2014) conducted a study in which gifted students were tested above level with a test that was 2 years more advanced than their grade level.

The second clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The central message is about the one study conducted by Warne.

5. [Although the literature is mixed concerning whether online discussion boards are conducive to fostering students’ critical thinking skills], strong evidence suggests it is a learning environment ripe with possibilities for doing so.

The second clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The author wants to emphasize on the important role of online discussion as a learning environment.

6. Learning is fundamental to life itself and we probably internalize from every life situation and experience, [although we are not conscious of much of it].

The first clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The writer focuses on the importance of learning in everyday life.

7. No local dengue fever cases were reported in 2013, [although cases may have been underreported because of local physicians were not familiar with the disease].

The first clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The emphasis is on the absence of dengue fever cases as reported in 2013.

8. Historically, counselors have not been involved in the academic mission of the school (Adelman, 2002; House & Hayes, 2002), [although recent research suggests an urgent need for them to be (Adelman, 2002; Clark & Amatea, 2004)].

The first clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The writer is focused on the function that school counselors have historically fulfilled.

10. Most test-takers managed to complete both choice exercises, [although some only answered the first one].

The first clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The emphasis is on the fact that most test-takers finished the two optional exercises included in the test.

11. All the plants remained alive at the end of seawater treatments, [although their vitality was strongly reduced].

The first clause (underlined) carries the central message of the passage. The min idea centers on the fact that the plants survived the experiment.

IX

Presenting with Examples

36

Presenting Examples with 'such as' and 'for example'

Presenting Examples with 'such as' and 'for example'

Carol Lynn Moder

It will be helpful for you to master some key expressions that we commonly use in academic writing in order to introduce specific examples. Two of the most common expressions of this type are such as and for example.

You may think that these expressions are used in the same way and are interchangeable, but a closer look at the contexts of their use will reveal differences. Mastering these differences will help you greatly improve your academic writing.

Look carefully at the following examples that show the most common way we use such as. 1 is from the introduction to an article.

1. Ethnographic observations find that homemade meals often consist of convenience foods such as canned vegetables with heavy seasoning, frozen fried potato products that would be reheated in the oven, macaroni and cheese out of the box, and hot dogs as the main meat item.[1]

2 is a similar example from the results section of a journal article.

2. Results on food preparation ability of the students in this study are presented in Table 1. A large percent (=90%) of the students knew how to make basic foods such as hamburgers, tacos, mashed potatoes, and scrambled eggs. In contrast, a relatively small percent (=25%) of the students knew how to make quiche, pizza sauce, basic salad dressings, or mayonnaise.[2]

Look closely at these examples. What phrases occur before such as? What occurs after such as? What do you note about the punctuation and capitalization?

[INSERT TABLE]

Now consider 3 and 4, which show the most common way we use for example.

1. In the context of this study, treats are sugary or salty snack items that fall outside the bounds of “eating right” or meeting children’s basic nutritional needs. Treats serve several purposes in mother– child interactions. In most cases, treats are used as a reward for children’s good behavior. For example, Nora in San Antonio would buy her daughters pudding cups, fruit roll-ups, or ice cream for good behavior.

2. When mothers are short on funds, they often use cheaper and less healthful foods to substitute for those they cannot afford. For example, Karen in Chicago would try to buy as many fresh foods as possible as soon as her food stamp benefits are deposited in her account.

Look closely at these examples. What kind of phrase occurs before for example? What occurs after for example? What do you note about the punctuation and capitalization?

[INSERT TABLE]

Compare the examples using such as and the examples using for example. What differences can you find in the forms and uses?

[1] Soliah, LuAnn, Walter, Janelle, & Antosh, Deeanna. 2006. Quantifying the impact of food preparation sills among college women. College Student Journal, 40 (4), 729-739.

[2] Ibid

37

'such as'

'such as'

Carol Lynn Moder

Such as

The expression such as is used to provide specific examples to illustrate the category named by the noun or noun phrase that comes immediately before it.

In the sentence from 1 above, repeated here, the writer makes the general category basic foods more specific by naming the list of examples that follow such as. These are hamburgers, tacos, mashed potatoes, and scrambled eggs.

A large percent (=90%) of the students knew how to make basic foods such as hamburgers, tacos, mashed potatoes, and scrambled eggs.

5a shows us a slightly different use of such as ‘

5a.  Silver (1996) demonstrated how college students use objects either as “anchors” to maintain previous identities or as “markers” to construct new identities. Anchor objects, such as dolls or baseball cards, were those left at home, while marker objects, such as photographs or music, were those brought into the college dorms.

In the first sentence in 5a, the writers are introducing key terms – anchors and markers -from previous research. In the next sentence, they further explain what these terms mean by stating that anchor objects are those students left at home, while marker objects are those students brought with them to college. They provide specific examples to help the reader understand what each type of object might be with the terms following such as – dolls or baseball cards and photographs or music . Note that in this example, the such asphrase is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. The commas help to separate the examples in the such as phrase from the rest of the sentence. In this case the items mentioned in the such as phrase provide additional information. We know that the phrases provide additional information because the sentence would be grammatically acceptable and understandable if we leave out the examples in the such as phrase, as we see in 5b.

5b. Anchor objects were those left at home, while marker objects were those brought into the college dorms.

Phrases using such as are:

- inserted into a complete sentenceor main clause,

- o Complete sentence

Anchor objects were those left at home.

- immediately after the noun that the examples are specifying

- o Insertion

Anchor objects, such as dolls or baseball cards, were those left at home.

Punctuation for such as

If:

- such as follows a general noun,

General nouns that often come before such as include:

items, things, issues, areas, factors, variables, activities, events

- the phrase that follows gives short specific examples from the category the general noun describes

then it may occur without commas before such as

(As we see in 1 and 2)

Otherwise, such as should have a comma before it.

If the examples not at the end of the sentence and are followed by a long phrase, there should also be a comma after them.

(As we see in 5a.)

NOTE: If you are in doubt, it is better to separate the such as phrase with commas, than to omit the commas.  Using the commas will make it easier for the reader to follow your sentence.

SENTENCE FRAGMENT WARNING

Such as must be inserted into a complete main clause; it cannot stand by itself in a separate sentence.

Students left anchor objects at home. Such as dolls or baseball cards.

THIS IS NOT GRAMMATICAL!

Such as must be attached to the same sentence in which the noun it specifies appears.

WORD ORDER WARNING

The such as phrase must directly follow the noun that it specifies; it cannot be put elsewhere in the clause.

Students left anchor objects at home, such as dolls or baseball cards.

THIS IS NOT GRAMMATICAL! The such as specifies the category anchor objects, so it must come directly after this noun phrase.

Punctuation Exercise: Such as

Look at the following examples from a research article and explain why the authors use or do not use a comma.

The authors argued that some of our emotions, such as disgust, are learned through our interaction with others in food related activities.

Several individuals described items such as fruit salad, homemade bread, or homemade cookies as their comfort food.

38

'For example': Introducing a Sentence

'For example': Introducing a Sentence

Carol Lynn Moder

The most common use of for example in academic writing is the use we saw in 3 and 4. For example introduces a specific example of an idea or concept that has been described in the preceding sentence. The most common use of for example in academic writing puts it at the beginning of a complete sentence.

3. In most cases, treats are used as a reward for children’s good behavior. For example, Nora in San Antonio would buy her daughters pudding cups, fruit roll-ups, or ice cream for good behavior.

For example is most commonly:

- After a complete sentence that introduces a main idea or concept

- •At the beginning of a second complete sentence or main clause

- o The first letter of For is capitalized because it is the beginning of a new sentence.

- o For example is followed by a comma to separate it from the full sentence that follows it’

SENTENCE FRAGMENT WARNING

For example must be attached to a complete main clause; it cannot appear by itself followed only by a list of items.

Treats are used as a reward for children’s good behavior. For  example, pudding cups, fruit roll-ups, or ice cream for good behavior.

THIS IS NOT GRAMMATICAL!

What follows for example here is just a list of noun phrases. There is no finite verb in this sentence, so it is a fragment, not a complete sentence. The for example phrase that appears at the beginning, must introduce a complete sentence

In 3, the first sentence states one of the findings of the research study, that mothers use treats to reward children for good behavior. The next sentence gives a specific example of this from one of the participants in the study. The phrase For example, alerts the reader that the sentence that comes after it is going to provide an example of the idea described in the previous sentence.

Exercise: For example or such as?

In the sentence below, decide whether For example or such as is the correct phrase and explain why.

1. The physical activity of preparing the food, _________________ chopping the fruit or kneading the dough, can be therapeutic. _________________, one woman described making cookie dough as a tremendous reliever of distress.

2. People reported that particular brands of chocolate provided them with comfort. ________________, one individual described the moment of biting into a Godiva chocolate as especially comforting. She described how Godiva chocolate was a food that she consumed only on special occasions, ________________ Valentine’s Day.

39

'For example': Inside a Sentence

'For example': Inside a Sentence

Carol Lynn Moder

We have described the most common uses in academic writing of For example and such as. If you master these uses and choose only to use them as we have described so far, you will not be likely to make errors. However, there is a second common use of for example, which you will encounter and which you may want to understand more fully. This use is shown in 6.

6. Some attention needs to be devoted to the intricacies of our language. Students are in need of assistance dealing with the following: homograph and homonym. The former are words that are spelled the same, for example,Bow of the ship and Bow and arrow. The latter are words with a different spelling that possess the same sound, such as,to, too and two; plane and plain.[1]

The use in 6, is very similar to the use of such as that we saw earlier. In fact, as we see here, the writer uses for example to introduce the examples for the first noun phrase and such as to introduce the second. So inside a sentence for example can be used in place of such as, BUT such as CANNOT be used everywhere you can use for example.

Such as is very restricted in its use, but for example can be used in more varied contexts. As we saw earlier, For example can be used at the beginning of a sentence but such as CANNOT. Inside a sentence, such as MUST immediately follow the noun or noun phrase that it specifies, but for example can occur in other places inside the sentence.

Let’s look at some uses of for example inside a sentence, where such as CANNOT be used.

7. The data analysis revealed several student ideas for situating writing course activity within digital contexts. A few interviewees, for example, discussed the possibility of having a course Facebook page, where students could interact with one another and the teacher to ask questions about homework.[2]

In 7, for example follows a noun, but it does not introduce examples that specify that noun. We could NOT use such as in this context. The whole sentence in which for example occurs, is provided as an example of what the sentence before describes. In 7, the first sentence states that the analysis revealed several student ideas for course activities. The entire following sentence gives an example of those student ideas. So, the context for using for example inside the sentence use, is the same as the context that we saw in examples 3 and 4 when For example occurred at the beginning of the sentence.

For example does not have to follow a noun or noun phrase, though.

Look closely at examples 8-12. What kind of phrase occurs before for example? What occurs after for example? What do you note about the punctuation and capitalization?

8. Many refugee children and youth do not have any print literacy skills. Take, for example, Jaabriil, a student we met through our study. He was born in a refugee camp in Yemen, yet he identifies with the language, culture, and ethnicity of his family’s Somali roots. Jaabriil came to Canada when he was 12 years old. Although he spent two years in elementary school — grades 7 and 8 — when we met him in the English literacy development (ELD) program in his first year of high school he had limited knowledge of Roman alphabet letter[3]

9. By bringing students’ nonacademic digital literacies into writing education, teachers can facilitate students’ critical thinking about the technologies they use. When Facebook is used in class activities, for example, teachers can prompt students to discuss the construction of Facebook itself; a discussion of Facebook data collection can lead students to become more aware of how the site provides information to advertisers.[4]

10. The assessment techniques should be aligned not only with the course outcomes, but also with the performance that learners/workers will be expected to achieve as a result of the new learning. If the course is on programming, for example, it only makes sense that learners demonstrate their learning through a final submission of a computer program project.[5]

11. In many states, a much larger percentage of students obtain the highest label of proficiency. In Utah, for example, 53% of examinees of the state-mandated language arts tests had “substantial” proficiency.[6]

12. The students generally reported understanding very little about loans before borrowing for the first time, but described the actual process of applying for a loan as fairly painless. Emily, for example, estimated the entire loan application process took her only 30 minutes.[7]

[INSERT TABLE]

As we see from these examples, for example can occur after verbs (take), prepositional phrases (in Utah), nouns or noun phrases (Emily, a few interviewees) or dependent clauses (When Facebook is used in class activities, If the course is on programming). Note that in all cases, it is inserted into what is otherwise a complete sentence.

How do we decide where to place for example in a sentence? To answer this question, we need to consider the larger context of the writing and what the writer wishes to highlight.

Look back at examples 7-12 and consider:

What information occurs in the sentence before?

What information does the for example sentence give us in relation to the first sentence?

What part of the for example sentence is the focus of the example?

When For example occurs at the beginning of the sentence, the entire following sentence illustrates the point being made in the first sentence. In 3, repeated here, the author is presenting findings showing that parents use treat to reward good behavior. The full following sentence is an example of this, specifying how one parent, Nora, used specific treats, pudding cups, fruit roll-ups or ice cream, to reward good behavior. Thus, the whole second sentence serves as the example of the concept in the previous sentence.

3. In most cases, treats are used as a reward for children’s good behavior. For example, Nora in San Antonio would buy her daughters pudding cups, fruit roll-ups, or ice cream for good behavior.

Compare that to 11. Here the first sentence introduces facts about student proficiency that are true in many states. The following sentence, gives us a sample of this by highlighting the specific percentage from only one state, Utah. The writer makes the information about states the focus of this section, so for example is put after the phrase In Utah.

11. In many states, a much larger percentage of students obtain the highest label of proficiency. In Utah, for example, 53% of examinees of the state-mandated language arts tests had “substantial” proficiency.[1]

Similarly, in 13 we again find for example after a prepositional phrase. This time the example is one of a set of items that the writers mentioned before. The authors’ point in this section is that many texts that are part of curriculum have vocabulary and other features that are too difficult for the students. They introduce the names of three difficult works and then they use details about one of them to illustrate their point. For example is placed after the name of the title selected for the example.

6. In a typical junior high class, students are expected to read such works as Homer’s The Odyssey, William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, or Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird. Many aspects of these wonderful and important texts might prove difficult for readers including vocabulary, themes and text structure. In To Kill a Mockingbird, for example, readers need to read and know the meanings of such words as assuaged, foray, impudent and taciturn.[2]

For example can also be used to highlight one of a series of examples in a section of writing. We see this in 10. Here the focus of the section is on assessment techniques and the main point is that these techniques need to match what the work learners will be able to do. Two specific illustrations are used, the first is for a course on programming. The second is for mobile learning applications. Here dependent clauses that begin with If specify examples of courses in which worker performances could be assessed. The writer uses for example after the first if clause to highlight that this is one of a series of conditions that illustrate the point in the prior sentence.

10. The assessment techniques should be aligned not only with the course outcomes, but also with the performance that learners/workers will be expected to achieve as a result of the new learning. If the course is on programming, for example, it only makes sense that learners demonstrate their learning through a final submission of a computer program project. Similarly, if the mobile learning application offers video modules on the features of medical equipment, the learner should be able to share those features in a presentation format.

As we have seen in these examples, the location of for example depends on what the writer has written in the previous sentences and what the writer wants to do with the example. For example is most commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence. If for example is placed inside the sentence, it is generally placed immediately AFTER a phrase that highlights the writer’s focus.

[1] Nelson, Kristin L.; Alexander, Melina; Williams, Natalie A.; Sudweeks, Richard R. 2014. Determining Adolescent struggling readers’ word attack skills with the core phonics Survey. Reading Improvement, 51(4), 333-340.

[2]  Nelson, Kristin, L., Alexander, Melina, Williams, Natalie A., & Sudweeks, Richard. 2014. Determining adolescent struggling readers’ word attack skills with the core phonic survey. Reading Improvement,51(4), 333-340.

[1] Miller, Harry, 2014. Reading where it counts.  Reading Improvement, 51(1), 27-31.

[2] Amicucci, Ann N. 2014. How They Really Talk. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57(6), 483-491.

[3] Montero, M. Kristiina; Newmaster, Sharon; Ledger, Stephanie .2015. Exploring Early Reading Instructional Strategies to Advance the Print Literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 58(1), 59-69.

[4] Ibid

[5] Linder-VanBerschot, Jennifer A.; Summers, Laura L. 2015. Designing Instruction in the Face of Technology Transience. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 16 (2), 107-118.

[6] Rambo-Hernandez, Karen E.; Warne, Russell T. 2015. Measuring the Outliers: An Introduction to Out-of-Level Testing With High-Achieving Students. Teaching Exceptional Children, 47(4), 199-207

[7] McKinney, Lyle; Mukherjee, Moumita; Wade, Jerrel; Shefman, Pamelyn; Breed, Rachel. 2015. Community College Students’ Assessments of the Costs and Benefits of Borrowing to Finance Higher Education.

Community College Review, 43(4), 329-354.

40

Summary Exercise: 'For example' or 'such as'?

Summary Exercise: 'For example' or 'such as'?

Carol Lynn Moder

In the examples below, decide whether for example or such as is the correct phrase and explain why.

1. Muslim food has a lot of customs and rules.____________________ pork,alcohol and drugs are “haraam,” which means they are forbidden foods for Muslims.

B.American and Chinese food culture are vastly different. ________________, Chinese people like to eat animals’ organs but American people do not.

1. In many cases, cultural values push us in a direction other than that to which we

would naturally tend, _______________, to reject meat, or to not steal from strangers.

1. Certainly beans come in a mosaic of colors that can rival those of fruits and vegetables — from the plain white great northern and navy beans, to the mottled brownish pink pintos, to the cranberry bean’s cream color with red streaks and flecks, the light and dark reds of kidney beans, the maroon-red adzuki, all the way to the black bean. The bean industry has exacting standards for maintaining these colors. ” It’s so strict, ” says Hosfield, ” that pinto beans, ______________ , have to not only have just the right brown mottling and shades of pink, but also show a yellow rim around the’ belly button,’ or scar, where the bean was once attached to the pod.

E.Writing in the content classes can add much to the learning process. In science class, ________________ , before having students read about a concept, teachers can find out what students already know about the subject by having them write for a short time.

Editing exercise

Review the uses of such as and for example in the sentences below, which were taken from student writing. If the sentence is correct, put a check next to it. If it is incorrect, explain why and propose a correction.

1. The United States invented many fast food meals such as macaroni and cheese, burger, and fried chicken but also different kinds of sweets, for example the peanut butter and jelly sandwich.

2. In this report, three points will be developed such as the types of professional writing, the knowledge of professional writing, and the required skills to success.

3. Organic pollutants such as oil and grease are a main concern

4. There are plenty of differences between Muslim countries and the United States. For example, the table manners and etiquette. For example, the Islamic dress rules advocate to dress according to social status and identity.

5. For those of you who love to get into the kitchen and follow delicious recipes, then the Google Glass cooking apps will be something that you won’t know how you lived without. For example, if you want to try to cook a new food. You may have no idea, but with this cooking App, it will be much easier to cook.

6. In Saudi Arabia, celebrities from Lebanon, Morocco and some other Arab countries set the beauty standard. These Arab female celebrities have had a lot of plastic surgery. For example, Nanci Ajram, a Lebanese singer, got her nose reshaped to look slimmer.

7. Plagiarism can lead to serious consequences, not only at the university, but in professional life as well. For example plagiarizing in medical research could result in the loss of many lives.

8. After that, I changed my business. I started to buy whatever I saw on eBay that was new for us and I sold it; for example, new kinds of sound speakers, chargers, apparel, and so many things.